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RESUME 



or 



Ancient and Modern History 



FROM THE 



DELUGE TO THE PRESENT TIME; 



DESIGNED TO ACCOMPANY 



HA WES' CHRONOLOGICAL CHART 

OF 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 



By S. HAWES, 



AUTHOR OF " STNCHKONOLOGT OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, " " AMER- 
ICAN HISTORICAL CHART," "NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL," ETC., ETC. 

NEW YORK: 
F. R. REED & CO., PUBLISHERS. 

1874. 



JUST PUBLISHED. 
HA WES' WALL CHART ^j^f 

OF 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 

JFrom t/ie Introduction of the Human Icuce 
into the IVorld to t/ie ^Present Time. 

"This Chart is carefully engraved, printed on fine map paper, 
"and mounted on cloth 36 by 52 inches, with cornice and roller. It 
is divided by vertical lines, the spaces between them representing 
the centuries, and by tracing the chart from top to bottom we may 
see at a glance what States and Empires were contemporaneous at 
any chosen time. 

It also contains carefully prepared tables of the Kulers of all 
the principal Nations, from the Patriarchs to the present time. 
These tables will prove a valuable auxiliary to the study of the 
'Chart. The divisions of History are represented by an important 
•diagram which also shows many of the subdivisions, rendering the 
study much more intelligible and consequently more interesting. 

Experience has proved that this Chart can be used with entire 
■success in all country district schools, and in every department in 
: graded schools except perhaps the primary. Every prominent ed- 
ucator in the country who has had an opportunity to examine its 
merits has recommended its general use, not only in schools, but 
in families, and every professional man or writer in any depart- 
ment of Literature, and every public and private Library, should 
be supplied with a copy. 



TESTIMONIALS. 

From Hon. Tnos. W. Bicknell, Commies' r of Public Schools for Bhode Island. 

We have examined a Chart of Universal History from the introduction of 
the human race into the world to the present time. It has heen prepared hy 
Stephen Hawes, the author of " Synchronology of Ancient and Modern His- 
tory," and illustrates in a comprehensive form the origin, growth, and decay 
■of nations, and in a manner most graphic and interesting presents an outline 
•easily filled up hy reading and study. The Chart is related to History as the 
outline-map to geography, and appeals to the mind through the eye and the 
understanding. 

This map will he of especial interest to students, and will he an invaluable 
aid to a teacher's library. 

From Rev. A. R. Hoiwe, A.M., Principal Keystone State Normal School. 

We would rather teach History orally, by means of this Chart, than with all 
the text-books in creation. The entire school can learn at the same time, and 
a ten minutes' drill per day, on a Chart like this, would give more ready knowl- 
edge of History than a half-hour's recitation from a text-book, and more will be 
remembered of it at the end of the term. 



Publishers: F. B. HEED & CO., 

121 NASSAU ST., N. Y. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, 

By S. HA WES, 

In the Office of the Librarian of C, ngeess, at Washington. 



THE LIBRARY 
OF CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 



INTRODUCTION 



The increasing dissatisfaction with the present method of 
teaching history in our schools, as well as securing a practical 
knowledge of its outlines by the general reader, is constantly 
becoming more apparent. Memorizing from text-books has 
afforded poor results for the time and labor bestowed. 

It is very generally conceded that the only successful method 
of instruction is to appeal to the mind through the eyes and the 
understanding. This cannot be done by the use of text-books 
alone. It is no more impracticable to attempt to secure a 
knowledge of the geography of the world without maps to 
represent the contour of its surface, than to attempt to secure 
any definite or comprehensive idea of the historical outlines of 
the world's history without a chart to mark their boundaries. 

It was to meet this prerequisite for the successful study of 
Mstory that the author of this manual compiled the Wall Chart 
of Universal History, just published. That chart was designed. 
to be used in connection with Synchronology of Ancient and 
Modem History, which has already been extensively introduced 
into schools and colleges. 

This little volume, now offered to the public, is not designed 
to take the place of Synchronology, but to serve as a guide for 
teachers and others desiring a brief review of the more import- 
ant changes which occur during each successive period. Syn- 
chronology records all the more important events which have 
occurred in the history of the world, most of which cannot be 
shown on the chart. The two should be used together. 



iv INTRODUCTION, 

Although designed more especially to accompany the large 
Chart of Universal History, this smaller work may be used in 
connection with any other reliable history, or by itself. 

The frequent references to the chart, and to the tables on the 
chart, are to the wall chart, which contains tables of the rulers 
of all the principal nations of the world, from the patriarchs t» 
the present time. 

Teachers and others, in using the chart, should carefully 
examine the tables, before coming before a class, as it will 
greatly aid them in understanding the changes on the same, as 
noted by change of colors. Changes in governments or juris- 
diction of countries, which are but temporary, are not noted on 
the chart. This is only designed to give the outlines of general 
history, leaving the details to be secured at a later period by 
general reading. 

In collecting and arranging the information contained in this 
manual, as well as on the chart, it is too much to expect that no 
errors have been made. But the author has spared no effort to> 
secure strict accuracy in dates and the narration of events. It not 
unfrequently occurs that discrepancies in dates are found in the 
record of the same events by different historians, who are con- 
sidered equally reliable. The reasons for this must be apparent 
to every student of history. Hence, should the reader find 
dates differing from those to which he has become accustomed 
by the use of certain histories, he should bear in mind, that 
what may at first seem to be an error, can be shown to be cor- 
rect by authority as reliable as his favorite author. 



1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



FIRST PERIOD. 

From the Creation, 4004 b. c, to the Deluge, 2348, — 

1656 YEARS. 

Kennedy affirms there are more than three hundred 
different opinions respecting the length of time which 
elapsed between the creation of the world and the birth 
of Christ. 

It must be observed that by the creation of the ivorld 
nothing more can be understood now than the introduc- 
tion of the human race into it; the science of geology 
having demonstrated that it is utterly impossible to 
assign a date to its creation. The Chinese carry this 
period back hundreds of thousands of years, wiiile the 
ancient Chaldean astronomers place the origin of so- 
ciety at no less than 470,000 years before the Chris- 
tian era. 

Of the Antediluvian period we have no written history, 
except that contained in the Bible. 

The author of this Bible history is generally conceded 
to be Moses, who was born 1571 b. c, or 777 years after 
the deluge. 

Moses died 1451 b. c, at the age of 120, the year of 
the entrance of the children of Israel into Canaan. The 
first five books of the Old Testament, written by Moses 
and known as the Pentateuch, cover a period of 2553 
years, closing at the time of his death. 

In this connection it may be of interest to observe how 
lew generations lived and passed away before the time of 
Moses. By reference to the chart it will be seen that 
Adam lived 243 years after the birth of Methuselah, who 
lived until the year of the deluge. Shem, the youngest 
son of Noah, who was saved in the ark, was 97 years old 
at the death of Methuselah, and lived until Abraham 
was 125 years old, and Isaac, Abraham's son, the father 
•of Jacob, was 49 years old. See Period III. The history 



6 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

of the first . period is only represented on the chart by 
showing the genealogy of the patriarchs from Adam ti- 
the family of Noah. 

The Chinese claim an antiquity of from 80,000 to 
100,000 years. But of their history, little is known until 
comparatively modern times. The "Celestial Empire" 
is generally allowed to have commenced about 2500 B. c. 
Others claim it was founded by Fohi, supposed to be the 
Noah of the Bible. 



SECOND PERIOD. 
From the Deluge, 2348 b. c, to the Call op Abraham, 1921„ 

—427 YEARS. 

Twenty-three hundred and forty-seven years before 
the Christian era, on the 27th day of the second month, 
Noah quit the ark. He offered sacrifices of thanksgiv- 
ing ; God appointed the rainbow as a visible pledge that 
he will send no more a universal deluge. 

From this time the descendants of Noah are dispersed 
through the earth ; those of Shem, probably in Asia, of 
Ham in Africa, and those of Japheth in Europe. 

One hundred years from this time, 2247 B. c, we have 
the account of the building of the Tower of Babel, the 
confusion of languages and the dispersion of nations. 
(See Gen. xi.) 

Two years later, Babylon is founded by Nimrod, the 
grandson of Ham, and ISTineveh, by Ashur, the son of 
Shem. These two kingdoms, as will be seen, were united 
2059 b. c, forming the Assyrian Empire. It should 
be observed that chronologists differ much on the origin 
of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Assyrian Empire. Much 
that is recorded as history, during this period and for 
several centuries following, is traditionary or mytholog- 
ical, and may only approximate the truth. 

In 2188 b. c. the kingdom of Egypt, the early 
seat of political civilization, is supposed to have been 
founded. The dynasty of its Pharaohs, or "great 
kings," commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, at 
this date, and continued to the conquest by Cambyses^ 
525 b. c. 

We know but little of this ancient monarchy until the 
time Jacob and his family went there to dwell, 1706 B.C. 



THIRD PERIOD, 1921-1491. ? 

Thebes (or Luxor), in Egypt, was founded 2111 b. c 
by Busiris. In 2085 the king-shepherds of Phoenicia 
seize lower Egypt, and reign 260 years. It was during 
this period that Ancient Greece was founded, Sicyon, its 
first kingdom, being founded in 2089. 

About this time astronomical observations were first 
made at Babylon. Hieroglyphics were invented by Atho- 
tes, the son of Mizraim (Menes) ; Sculpture and paint- 
ing used m Egypt to commemorate military exploits ; 
Pyramids and canals built in Egypt, and the science of 
geometry cultivated. 



THIRD PERIOD. 

From tiie Call of Abraham, 1921 b. c, to the Exodus of 
the Israelites, 1491,-430 years. 

With the call of Abraham, authentic history of the 
Hebrews commences. In 1921 Abram comes into Canaan 
with his wife, and Lot, his nephew, and dwells in Sichem. 
The next year he goes into Egypt. In 1897 b. c. the 
" Cities of the Plain " are destroyed, and Lot rescued 
through the intercession of Abraham. Three years later 
Abram departs from Mamre to Beersheba. The same 
year Isaac, the child of promise, is born. In 1836 b. a. 
Jacob and Esau, twin sons of Isaac and Rebekah, are 
born. In 1729 Joseph, the son of Jacob, is sold into 
Egypt, and there sold as a slave to Potiphar. Twenty- 
three years later Jacob, his father, having learned that 
Joseph was alive in Egypt, and being pressed by famine, 
is prevailed upon to go down into Egypt with his whole' 
family (1706 b. a), where they and their descendants re- 
mained for a period of 215 years. About the commence- 
ment of this period, Damascus (Syria) is referred to iu 
Gen. xiv. as a city, and consequently must have been 
one_ of the most ancient in the world. It is now the 
capital of a Turkish pachalic, and will be remembered in 
connection with the massacre of 3,000 Maronites by the 
Mohammedans, May 28, a. d. 1860. 

From the 19th to the 13th century b. c, the Plicenl- 
cians, the most eminent navigators of antiquity, estab- 
lished colonies along the coast of the Mediterranean, and 
are supposed to have visited the British Isles. The tra- 
ditional history of ancient Troy, afterwards immortal- 



"8 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ized by Homer, and the founding of Athens, the cap- 
ital of ancient Attica and of modern Greece, as well as 
Sparta, the capital of Laconia, and the rival of Athens, 
have their origin about the close of this period. The 
Parian Chronicle in the Arundelian Marble, Oxford, be- 
gins in 1582 B. c. 



FOURTH PERIOD. 

From the Departure op the Israelites out op Egypt, 1491, 
to their Entrance into Canaan, 1451, — 40 years. 

Moses, after making an unsuccessful attempt to release 
liis people from Egyptian bondage, fled to Midian, where 
he married Jethro's daughter, and continued as a shep- 
herd 40 years. In 1491 b. c, God appeared to him in a 
burning bush at Mount Horeb, and sent him to Egypt 
to deliver the Israelites. The history of this period is 
confined almost entirely to the Hebrews or Israelites. 
But few political changes are recorded. Of the story of 
the ten plagues, of the departure of the Israelites from 
Egypt, the pursuit by Pharaoh, and the destruction of 
himself and army in the Red Sea, the arrival of the Is- 
raelites at Mount Sinai, and the giving of the Law the 
same year, their wanderings in the desert and wars with 
the Amorites, the death of Aaron and Moses, and the 
entrance of the Israelites into the land of Canaan under 
the lead of Joshua, with many other circumstances con- 
nected with their journeyings. all readers of the Bible 
are supposed to be familiar. The five books of Moses, 
containing the history of the 2553 years, close at this 
time. 

During this period the kingdom of Mycene is sup- 
posed to have been founded by Perseus, late king of Ar- 
gos. It was also during this period that the Olympic 
.Games were first celebrated at Elis. 



EIFTH PERIOD. 

Prom the Entrance op the Israelites into Canaan, 1451, 
to the Kingdom of Saul, 1095, — 356 years. 

The history of the children of Israel during this pe- 
riod is most important. But 40 years had elapsed since 



FIFTH PERIOD, 1451-1095. 9 

their deliverance from Egyptian bondage, when they 
were called upon to establish for themselves a govern- 
ment in a strange land, surrounded by a treacherous and 
warlike people. Joshua, their leader, is soon engaged in 
a war against the kings of Canaan. After five years the 
conquest of Canaan is complete, and Joshua divides the 
conquered territory among his people. 

The rulers of the Israelites were first styled Governors, 
then Judges, of whom Samuel was last. They were 
almost constantly engaged in war with the Philistines 
and other warlike people. 

By reference to the chart it will be seen that in the 
13th century b. c. (1263) the celebrated Argonautic Ex- 
pedition was undertaken. This is the first naval expedi- 
tion on record, and was undertaken by Jason to avenge 
the death of his kinsman, Phryxus, and to recover the 
treasure seized by his murderer, the king of Colchis. 
The ship in which Phryxus sailed to Colchis, having 
been adorned with the figure of a ram, poets were in- 
duced to pretend the journey of Jason was for the recov- 
ery of the golden fleece. Jason's ship was called Argo, 
from its builder, and he was accompanied by many kings 
and heroes. 

It was also during this period, about 1200, that the 
HeraclidcB, descendants of Hercules, were driven out of 
Peloponnesus. About 1104, or about 80 years after the 
taking of Troy, they reconquered it and returned. This 
is a noted epoch in chronology, as all history preceding 
it has been accounted fabulous. It was during this pe- 
riod that the six servitudes of the Israelites occurred. 
See Synchronology. See also table of Governors and 
Judges of Israel, on the chart. The history of the Judges 
differs with chronologers. 

This period brings us down to the time of Samuel, the 
last Judge of Israel. When old, he employed his sons as 
judges under him; but their misconduct gave Israel the 
occasion of desiring a king ; and Saul, whom God had 
selected and commanded Samuel to anoint, having deliv- 
ered Jabesh-Gilead in extreme distress, is anointed king, 
and the Hebrew Monarchy established, 1095 
B.C. 



10 ANCIENT HISTORY 



SIXTH PERIOD. 

From the Kingdom of Saul, 1095, to the Building of 
Solomon's Temple, 1001, — i)l years. 

The history of the world during the time of the He- 
brew monarchy becomes more interesting, as it is more 
reliable. King Saul, like the Judges who preceded him, 
was soon involved in war with the Philistines. He soon 
disobeys Samuel's orders, is rejected, and Samuel sent to 
Bethlehem to anoint David as the king of Israel, 1067 
B. c, when David is but eighteen years of age. Saul, 
urged by jealousy, endeavors to slay David, who flees to 
various places for safety. In 1055 b. c, while at war 
with the Philistines, Saul causes the ghost of Samuel to 
be raised. He loses the battle, kills himself, and is suc- 
ceeded, as will be seen by the table, by Ishbosheth his 
son, and David. Seven years later Ishbosheth dies, and 
David reigns alone. David's reign was a most eventful 
one, and must be familiar to all Bible readers. 

His crimes as well as his virtues, his successes, and de- 
feats are fully narrated. Two years before his death he 
numbered Israel, for which God gave him the choice of 
three plagues with which to be punished. He soon after 
prepared for the building of the Temple on Mount Zion. 
In 1015 he died and was succeeded by Solomon, who had 
already reigned about six months in the lifetime of his 
father, David. 1012 B. c. Solomon commenced the build- 
ing of the temple, and was furnished with timber and 
workmen by Hiram, king of Tyre. The same year 
Solomon made an alliance with Pharaoh. In 1004 the 
temple was finished, having been seven years and a half 
in building. 



SEVENTH PEEIOD. 

From the Building op the Temple, 1004, to the Baby- 
lonish Captivity, 588, — 116 years. 

Soon after the completion of the temple Solomon 
extended his commerce in connection with Hiram, king 
of Tyre, to India, via Eed Sea, and to the shores of the 
Atlantic, via the Straits of Gibraltar; built Tadmar 
(Palmyra), Baalbec, and other cities. About this tiim 



SEVENTH PERIOD, 1004-588. 11 

Samos and Utica were built. Solomon is afterward 
seduced into idolatry by his wives. 

In 975, after a prosperous reign of 40 years, he died 
and was succeeded by Kehoboam, his son. The same 
year Kehoboam, having answered the elders of Israel 
harshly, is rejected by ten tribes, over whom Jeroboam 
reigns; so that only Judah and Benjamin adhere to the 
family of David. 

The kingdom of Israel— the ten tribes— continued, as 
will be seen by reference to the chart and the tables, 
until 721 b. c, a period of 254 years, when Shalmanezer, 
king of Assyria, after a siege of three years, captured 
Samaria, and carried beyond the Euphrates the tribes 
that Tiglath-Pileser had not already carried into captiv- 
ity, 740 b. c. 

In 588 b. c, after a siege of 18 months, Jerusalem is 
taken by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babvlon, the city 
destroyed, the temple burned, and the Jews of Jerusalem 
and Judea carried captive beyond the Euphrates. The 
poorer classes only left in the land. 

The Assyrian Empire occupies an important po- 
sition during this period until the death of Sardanapalus. 
After his death the empire is divided into the Assy- 
rian, Babylonian, and Medean kingdoms. (See 
tables.) In 747 B. c. Nabonassar founds the Babylo- 
nian Empire. Tiglath-Pileser continues the Assyrian 
Empire ; but it is reduced into very narrow limits. In 
681-80 b. c. Babylon and Nineveh were united under 
Esar-haddon, and the second Assyrian Empire ended 
being succeeded by the Babylonian Empire. 

Persia and Greece, it will be seen, occupy promi- 
nent positions in history during this period. 

Carthage was founded by Dido, 869 b. c. (Blair) 
She afterwards became a great commercial and warlike 
republic, and disputed the empire of the world with 
Rome, which occasioned the Punic Wars, the first of 
which began 264 b. c, and lasted 23 years. The Cartha- 
ginians bore the reputation of a faithless people, hence 
the term Punic faith. 

Macedon. The first kingdom of Macedon was 
founded by Caranus, about 814 b. c. It was an incon- 
siderable country, and was at different times under the 
protection of Athens, Thebes, and Sparta, for nearly five 
centuries, until the reign of Philip, the father of Alex- 



12 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

ander the Great. (See Macedonian Empire in next 
period.) 

Rome. In its original state, Eome is said to have 
been but a small castle on the summit of Mount Pala- 
tine. Here the foundation of the city was laid by Bo- 
rn ulus, 749 years before the birth of Christ, or 753 before 
the Christian era. By reference to the table of rulers on 
the chart it will be seen that Eome was governed by 
kings until after the close of this period, when in 509 B. c. 
the Tarquins were expelled, and a Consular government 
began which continued independent 461 years, till the 
battle of Pharsalia, 48 B. c. 

Media. It was also during this period, 711 B.C., that 
the Medes revolted from the Assyrian Empire. The 
founding of the Median kingdom is usually dated from 
747 B. c, contemporaneously with Babylon and Assyria, 
when Arbaces commenced to govern without being de- 
clared king. (See table of kings of Media, on the chart.) 

Olympiads. The era of the Greeks known as the 
Olympiads dates from July 776 b. c, when the victors at 
Olympia were first registered, Coroebus being the first 
victor enrolled. These games are said to have been 
instituted 1453 b. c; although it is claimed by others 
they were instituted by Pelops, 1307 b. c. They were 
revived again 884 B. c, in honor of Jupiter. This era of 
the Olympiads was reckoned by periods of four years, each 
period being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date 
the year and the Olympiad were both named. The com- 
putation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, A. D. 440. 

Scythia. The Tartars, Mongols or Moguls, were 
anciently known as Scythians. They dwelt in the most 
northern part of Europe and Asia, although the boun- 
dary of their country was unknown. They first appear 
in history during this period, but most prominently in 
the seventh century b, c. Many other political changes 
recorded in history will be found referred to in the tables 
of rulers, of the ancient nations, and especially of Greece 
and Egypt. During this period flourished many of the 
Hehrcw prophets. Also Homer, the first epic poet of the 
world ; Lycurgus, the great mythic legislator of Sparta, 
in ancient Greece ; Dido, the founder and queen of 
ancient Carthage, and many others whose names are 
•conspicuous in history. 



EIGHTH PEEIOD, 588-330. 13 



EIGHTH PERIOD. 
From the Captivity, 588, to Alexander the Great, 330, — 

258 YEARS. 

At the commencement of this period we find Rome 
and Macedonia slowly but permanently enlarging their 
borders, and gathering strength for those unparalleled 
achievements which will be more conspicuous during 
the next period. 

We have no political changes in Greece to note on the 
chart, except the settlement of -ZEtolia, a country 
named after iEtolus, who settled here. After the ruin 
of Athens and Sparta, the iEtolians became the rivals of 
the Acbaaans, and alternate enemies qf Rome. The his- 
tory of Greece is however of exciting interest during this 
period, as she was almost constantly engaged in bloody 
wars, and experiencing alternate victories and defeats. 

Nebuchadnezzar is on the throne of Babylon, and that 
proud, haughty, and powerful empire is in the zenith of 
its greatness and its wickedness, which are soon to prove 
its overthrow. 

During the first century of this period, Egypt is con- 
quered by Cambyses, the son of Cyrus the Great. 

Darius, king of Media, extends his conquests over 
Asia. 

Cyrus the Great became king of Persia in 559 B. c, and 
two years later overthrew the Meclo-Babylonian Empire; 
in less than ten years conquered Asia Minor, and in 536 
formed the Mecto-Persian Empire. He proclaimed 
liberty to the captive Jews, permitted and encouraged 
them to return and rebuild Jerusalem and the temple, 
and returned the sacred vessels. This terminates the 
seventy years' captivity from the time when Daniel was 
carried captive to Babylon, 606 B. c. In 490 b. c, Darius 
of Persia, determined' to extend his power into Greece, 
equipped a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 300,000 sol- 
diers. They met the Greek army, numbering about 
10,000, at Marathon, in Attica, and were defeated w T ith 
terrible slaughter, Sept. 29. The history of the Persian 
Empire is of unusual interest, and should be carefully 
studied by all students. 

The Sacred Wars occurred during this period. 
The Irst, concerning the Temple of Delphi, 448 b. c. ; 



14 ANCIEXT HISTORY. 

the second, 357, on Delphi being taken by the Phocians. 
This was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the 
cities of the Phocians and dispersing the inhabitants, 
340 b. c. 

It is also during this period, 409 b. c, that the Old 
Testament closes, and we have no more Scripture infor- 
mation until the time of Zecharias and Elizabeth, the 
parents of John the Baptist. 

Macedonian Empire. By referring to the chart 
it will be seen that the great powers of Greece and Per- 
sia are suddenly overthrown by Alexander III., called 
the Great, son of Philip II. of Macedon. He succeeded 
his father, 336 b. c, at the age of 20 years. 

He soon entered upon a career of unbroken successes, 
and in about six years became monarch of the world, and 
sat upon the throne of Darius, the last king of the Per- 
sian Empire, 330 b. c. 

During this period historical events multiply rapidly, 
and are too numerous to refer to, even those of great im- 
portance. The same may be said in reference to distin- 
guished persons whose names figure conspicuously in 
Bible and secular history. Persons wishing to be in- 
formed more fully upon the progress of events during 
this and the following periods are referred to " Synchro- 
nology of Sacred and Profane History," by the author of 
this chart. 

A few of the more prominent men of this period were : 

Pythagoras, the great philosopher of Grecian Italy, 
who taught the doctrine of celestial motion ; Solon, the 
great Athenian legislator, and one of the seven sages of 
Greece ; Croesus, the last king of Lydia, famous for his 
wealth; JEsop, an ancient Grecian fable-writer (most of 
the fables commonly ascribed to him, however, were 
written by other authors) ; Confucius, the celebrated 
Chinese philosopher; Herodotus, the father of history; 
Socrates, the great Athenian sage and martyr; Xenophon, 
the celebrated Grecian warrior, philosopher and his- 
torian ; Phidias, the finest sculptor of antiquity ; Peri- 
cles, one of the noblest statesmen of ancient Greece ; 
Themistocles, one of the great statesmen and generals of 
Athens, during its brightest days ; Aristoteles, commonly 
called Aristotle, one of the men whose thoughts have 
ruled the world; Demosthenes, the orator of Athens; 
and Plato, the greatest Grecian philosopher. 



NINTH PERIOD, 330-146. 15 



NINTH PERIOD. 

Prom Alexander the Great, 330, to the Overthrow op 
the Grecian Empire, 146,-184 years. 

The empire of Alexander, or of Macedon, is destined 
io be of short duration. Alexander marches into India, 
overruns the country as far as the Ganges. He returns 
to Babylon, where he dies, April 21, 321 b. c, at the age 
of 32 years. After many dreadful conflicts between his 
"Captains, his vast dominions and conquests form four 
kingdoms, Macedonia, Thrace, Syria, and Egypt, all of 
which afterwards became Eoman provinces— Thrace in 
1G8, Macedonia in 148, Syria in 65, and Egypt in 30 b. c. 
At the battle of Ipsus. 301 b. c, Antigonus, formerly one 
of Alexander's generals, was defeated and slain, and the 
-empire is again divided among the four allied provinces. 

It is during this period that the Parthians are first 
noticed on the chart. They were originally a tribe of 
Scythians, who being exiled, as their name indicates, from 
their own country, settle near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid 
the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended 
over a large part of Asia, 250 b. c. The Parthians dis- 
puted the empire of the world with the Romans, who had 
seen no country unconquered by their arms. Thev were 
never, as will be seen by the chart, fully subdued by the 
Romans. 

Bithynia, a province of Asia Minor, is said to have 
been invaded by the Thracians, under Bithvnus, son of 
Jupiter, who gave it the name of Bithynia, It was sub- 
ject successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and 
Macedonians. Most of the cities were built by Grecian 
colonists. It was bequeathed to the Romans, 74 b. c. 

The early history of Cappadocia is involved in much 
obscurity. The kingdom is said to have been founded 
m the eighth century b. c. It was subject to Macedonia 
m the fourth century, but recovered its independence 
^L^. ? an ^ finail 3 r became a Roman province, a. d. 15. 

Cilicia, in Asia Minor, became a Roman province 
67 b. c. 

The Maccabees, a family of patriotic Jews, com- 
menced their career during the persecution of Antiochus 
-kpiphanes, 166 b. c. The historv of the Maccabees is 
contained m five books of that name, two of which are 



16 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

contained in the Apocrypha. Four are counted canoni- 
cal by the Roman Catholic Church, but none by Prot- 
estants. 

Greece. 284-80 b. c, the JEtolian and Achaean 
Leagues are revived. The latter is afterwards joined by 
most of the Grecian powers, and remains formidable 
more than 130 years, when it was entirely overcome and 
Greece became a Roman province, under the name of 
the province of Achaia, 146 b. c. 

The history of Rome now begins to demand a greater 
share of our attention. In the third century B. c, the 
Somnites, a warlike people of South Italy, after three 
sanguinary wars, were subdued. The Cisalpine Gauls 
are also conquered by the Romans, 220 b. c. From this 
time to the Christian era it will be readily observed how 
rapidly the nations of the old world become subject to 
Roman authority. 

This period is memorable for the Punic wars; those 
long and costly campaigns with Hannibal and the Car- 
thaginian States, carried on in Italy, Spain, and Africa. 
The first of these wars commenced 261 b. c, and con- 
tinued 23 years; the second in 218 B. c, and the third 
149 b. c. Three years later, Carthage is conquered by 
the Romans. 

The Macedonian tears, carried on by the Romans with 
Philip, commenced 213 b. c. 

The third, and last, of these wars. commenced 171 B. c, 
and three years later Macedon was conquered, and be- 
came a Roman province. 

The Huns are first heard of about 250 b. c. They 
were a race of warlike Asiatics, and are reported to have 
conquered China near the close of that century. 

The Etruscan war was begun by the Romans 312 B. c. 
Seleucus Mcator took Babylon, from which commenced 
the Era of the Selucidae. This era was used in Syria for 
many years, and frequently by the Jews and some Ara- 
bians until the 15th century. 

This period also furnishes many men whose names 
and achievements occupy prominent places in history. 
Among whom were Phocion, one of the true Grecian 
heroes, warrior and statesman ; Euclid, the great geo- 
metrician of Alexandria ; Archimedes, the famous Gre- 
cian geometer of Syracuse, who demonstrated the prop- 
erties of the lever; and Hannibal, the Carthaginian 



TENTH PEEIOD, 146- If 

general, one of the greatest military commanders of 
ancient history. 



TENTH PERIOD. 

From the Overthrow of the Grecian Empire, 146, to the 

Christian Era. 

From this time to the commencement of the Christian 
Era, as will be seen by reference to the chart, one nation 
or kingdom after another yields to the power of Rome 
until she becomes " Mistress of the World." But these 
Roman victories were secured at an immense sacrifice of 
blood and treasure. 

Prominent among the wars of this period are the 
Numantine ivar in Spain, between the Romans and the 
Celts (Celtiberians); the Servile wars in Sicily; the Ju- 
gurthimwar, immortalized by the pen of Sallust; the 
Teutones and Cimbri against the Romans, which contin- 
ued eight years; the Mitliridatic tear, caused by the 
massacre of 100,000 Romans by Mithridates, king of 
Pontus; the Social or Mar sic War, which continued 
three years, till finished by Sylla, the celebrated Roman 
general ; and the almost continual wars in which Cassar 
was engaged, until 8 b. c, when the Roman empire is at 
peace with all the world, and the Temple of Janus is shut. 
The Roman empire is usually dated January 1, 30 b. c. ; 
soon after the battle of Actium, in West Greece. This 
battle was fought September 2, 31 b. c, between the 
fleets of Octavms (Augustus) Cesar on the one side, and 
Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other. The victory 
was gained by Cesar, and made him master of the world. 

The 400 years intervening between the close of the 
Old Testament Scriptures and the commencement of the 
New, are important for the great political and ecclesias- 
tical changes which occurred, and for the great number 
of distinguished men, prominent in military and political 
affairs, as well as in science and literature. 

The golden age of Roman literature was durino- this 
the tenth period. About this time flourished Horace 
Virgil and Ovid, distinguished Latin poets; Sallust 
and Livy, historians; Straoo, the celebrated Greek 
geographer; also Cicero, statesman and orator; Brutus, 
Cassius, Catiline, and many others, whose names are 
familiar to every reader of history. 



18 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

The census, or register of estates and families through- 
out Judea, referred to in Matthew's Gospel, was made 
one year before the birth of Christ, or in the fifth year 
before the Christian era; but the taxes were not collected 
until some years after. 

The birth of John the Baptist and of Jesus Christ oc- 
curred in the four thousandth year of the world, and 
the fourth year before the vulgar Christian era. 

Herod the Great, after being governor of various parts 
of Syria, was appointed king of the Jews, and took part 
in the wars between Antony and Augustus. He rebuilt 
the temple and Jerusalem, and fortified many places in 
Palestine. In a furious rage and jealousy, he put his 
beautiful wife Mariamne to death. He vainly attempted 
to murder the infant Saviour, but cruelly massacred the 
male children near Bethlehem. He put his own son 
Antipater to death, and five days after died himself in 
the most dreadful manner, but a few months after the 
birth of Christ. 

Having thus briefly reviewed the more important po- 
litical changes, and other events recorded in history prior 
to the Christian era, we can only hope that by the aid of 
the chart these facts will be permanently impressed upon 
the mind. The reader is also referred to Synchronology 
of Ancient and Modern History for a more full and com- 
plete chronological record of historical events. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO 

THE PRESENT TIME. 



FIRST PEEIOD. 

From tiie Commencement of the Christian Era to the 
Decline of the Roman Empire, a. d. 193. 

It is now generally conceded that the Christian era 
commenced January 1, in the middle of the fourth year 
of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d year of the building- of 
Borne, and four years after the birth of Christ. The 
actual date of the birth of Christ cannot be ascertained. 
It is held by many that He was born, Friday, April 5, 
4 b. c ; by others that He was born Monday, Decem- 
ber 25, of the same year. 

The Christian era is said to have been invented by a 
monk, about a. d. 532, and was introduced into Italy 
during the same century. The Council of Chelsea, 816, 
ordered it to be used by bishops, but it was not generally 
employed until several centuries after. Charles III. of 
Germany is the first king who added " in the year of our 
Lord " to his reign, in 879. 

At the commencement of this period we find Rome 
virtually mistress of the world. The Commonwealth of 
Rome terminated with the battle of Actium, referred to 
in the last period of Ancient History, when Octavius 
(now Augustus) became undisputed sovereign of the 
whole Roman Empire. The Senate still held its sessions, 
Irat its acts had no real efficacy. 

The long civil wars in which they had been engaged 
made the Romans desire tranquillity rather than war. 
Augustus made some conquests in Spain, and engaged in 
a few other successful military enterprises, but his reign 
was generally pacific. He was a liberal patron of learn- 
ing and the arts, and the "Augustine Age" of literature 



20 MODEBN HISTOEY. 

was greatly distinguished for genius and refinement. If 
we may judge from his conduct while a member of the 
triumvirate, it must be admitted that his virtues did not 
spring so much from principle as from policy. 

Augustus died A. d. 14, and was succeeded by Tiberius, 
the son of his wife, Li via, by a former husband. He had 
greatly distinguished himself as a statesman and general 
before he attained the throne, and his accession was 
hailed with joy; but his reign was a continued course of 
tyranny and crime, and was the example of the long 
series which have made the annals of Some unique in the 
history of the world. 

It was during the reign of Tiberius that the crucifixion 
of our Saviour took place, in A. D. 29 or 30. 

Caligula, who succeeded Tiberius, commenced his reign 
well, but soon became, by the wanton and ferocious dispo- 
sition he displayed, almost as much the contempt as the 
hatred of his subjects. 

It is not our purpose to trace the emperors of Rome 
through their successive reigns, as the name and reign of 
each may be learned from the table on the chart. 

Nero was the son of one of the worst women that ever 
disgraced the world, and one of the first murders com- 
mitted by Nero was that of his mother. The detail of 
his crimes is impossible. Rome was in good part burned 
down during his reign. He fixed the crime on the Chris- 
tians, and from this arose the first of the ten terrible 
persecutions. It was during this persecution that St. 
Paul suffered martyrdom at Rome. 

Vespasian, who ascended the throne in 69, had already 
gained great distinction, and his accession was accom- 
plished at the will of the army in Syria, of which he was 
in command. His reign was generally prosperous. Two 
events of world-wide interest occurred during his reign. 
The first, the wars against the Jews that ended with the 
destruction of Jerusalem and dispersion of the Jews, 
Sept. 8, 70, by Titus, his son, and afterwards successor. 
More than 1,000,000 Jews perished. The other event 
was the wars of Agricola in Britain, by which the Roman 
power was established there, A. d. 84. 

Titus is generally considered a successful ruler. But 
the excellency of his reign is not such as would be 
esteemed in these days, especially the building of the 
Colosseum for gladiatorial purposes. The great erup- 



SECOND PERIOD, 193-364 21 

tion of Vesuvius which buried Pompeii, Herculaneum, 
and Stabile, and killed the elder Pliny, took place during 
his reign, August 24, 79. 

Domitian, the brother and successor of Titus, was one 
of the worst of the Roman emperors. He had all but 
-absolute power, and scrupled not to employ it for the ac- 
complishment of his own wicked purposes. He was the 
last of the twelve Caesars (Julius Caesar being considered 
first). He was assassinated in 96, after a tyranny of 15 
years. 

The next five emperors are called in history "the five 
good emperors." During the reign of Adrian, the third 
of the five good kings, 135-6, the final desolation of Judea 
is accomplished, 580,000 Jews are slain by the Romans, 
and the remainder banished from Judea. With the death 
of the last, Marcus Aurelius, perished the glory of the 
empire, and from this time commenced its decline. Dur- 
ing the reign of this emperor occurred the fourth perse- 
cution of the Christians, in which Justin Martyr, and 
Polycarp, the venerable bishop of Smyrna, perished. 

It was during the first century of the Christian era 
that the events recorded in the New Testament Scrip- 
tures occurred. Josephus, the Jewish historian, was 
contemporary with the Apostles. He died in 95, a few 
years before the death of St. John. 



SECOND PERIOD. 

From the Decline of the Roman Empire, 193, to its 

Division, 364,-171 years. 

At the commencement of this period there arose four 
competitors for the throne: Didius Julianus at Rome, 
Niger in Syria, Septimeus Severus in Pannonia, and 
Albinus in Britain. 

The throne was sold by auction by the Praetorian 
€ohorts. It was purchased by Didius Julianus, who 
was assassinated after a reign of about three months, 
other parts of the army refusing to ratify the purchase. 

He was succeeded by Septimeus Severus, who was 
proclaimed emperor by the army in Illyria, on learning 
that the diadem had been purchased by Julianus. He 



22 MODERN HISTOEY. 

was an able warrior, and abolished the forms of the 
Republic and reigned with despotic rigor. During the 
remainder of this period it will be seen, by reference to 
the table on the chart, that the reigns of most of the 
emperors were of short duration, and many of them were 
distinguished only for the cruelty or imbecility of the- 
reigning sovereign. 

Caracalla, son and successor of Severus, began his 
reign by murdering his brother Geta, associated with 
him in the Empire. His career was one of cruelty and 
folly. During his reign all the free inhabitants of the 
empire were declared Roman citizens. 

Maorinus, the murderer and successor of Caracalla, 
was a native of Mauritania and commanded that em- 
peror's body-guard. He Avas beheaded in a mutiny, after 
a reign of about one year. 

Heliogafoaius was raised to the dignity of emperor 
by the Praetorian Guards when he was but 15 years old. 
He attempted to introduce into Rome the superstitious, 
idolatry of the East. After a reign of about four years, 
during which time he perpetrated almost every conceiva- 
ble act of infamy and madness, he was killed by those 
who exalted him, a. d. 222. 

Alexander Severus had been adopted by his pre- 
decessor, and succeeded to the throne on his assassina- 
tion. Although very young, he endeavored to restore 
discipline to the army and order to the Senate. During 
his reign, 226, the Parthian dynasty was overthrown, and 
Artaxerxes I., a common soldier, founder of the Sassa- 
nides dynasty, restored the kingdom of Persia, which 
continued, as will be seen by the chart, for more than 
four centuries. Severus having gained a victory over the 
Persians, was marching against the German tribes on the 
Rhine, when he was assassinated by his own soldiers, who- 
were tired of his strict discipline. 

Maximinus carried on the war against the Germans 
successfully, which his predecessor commenced. He was 
assassinated by his troops on their way to Rome, 238. 

From the death of Alexander Severus, 235, to the reign 
of Diocletian, 284, a period of 49 years, 16 different em- 
perors reign in Rome, none of whom accomplish much 
that is of interest to narrate. Their reigns were short, 
and all but two, Claudius and Tacitus, met violent 
deaths. 



second period, 193-364. 23 

The reign of Decius is memorable for the terrible per- 
secution which he instituted against the Christians and 
for the Gothic invasion. 

Valerian, while engaged in a war against Persia, was 
taken prisoner and compelled for seven years to bow him- 
self down, so as to serve as a footstool for Sapor, the Per- 
sian monarch, when mounting his horse. 

During the reign of Gallienus, the empire was in- 
vaded by barbarians on all sides, and the inactivity of the 
emperor caused many usurpers to rise, who are known in 
history as the "Thirty Tyrants," although, their actual 
number was but nineteen. 

Claudius delivered Italy from the Goths by a victory 
"'terribly complete." During his reign, Zenobia, Queen 
of Palmyra, who reigned with the title of Augusta, and 
Queen of the East, conquered Egypt, a part of Armenia, 
and Asia Minor. 

Aurelian defeated Zenobia at Edessa, in Mesopota- 
mia, 273, destroyed her magnificent capital, and carried 
her captive to Eome. From that time Palmyra ceased 
to make a figure in history. 

France, Spain, and Britain are reduced to obedience to 
Eome. 

The reign of Diocletian is more distinguished than 
that of either of his predecessors since the commence- 
ment of the present period. He was a Dalmatian slave, 
and rose by his merits from the rank of a common sol- 
dier. The "Diocletian Era" was also called the "Era 
of Martyrs," on account of the great persecutions during 
his reign. This era was used by the Christians until the 
sixth century, and till after the adoption of the Christian 
era. It is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. 
It dates from the day Diocletian was proclaimed em- 
peror, August 29, a. d. 284. This was the last of the ten 
persecutions of the Christians. 

Diocletian associated with himself Maximian, and they 
afterward took two other colleagues, Galeriu* and Con- 
stantius, each bearing the title of Caesar. The empire 
was then divided into four parts, under the government 
of two emperors and two Caesars. Soon after the com- 
mencement of Diocletian's reign the empire was attacked 
by northern barbarians, and several provinces usurped by 
the tyrants. In 29G, Britain was recovered after a usur- 
pation of ten years. 



24 MODERN HISTORY. 

Constantine, the son of Constantius, was appointed 
by his father, before his death, to be his successor. His- 
torians relate that when Constantine was marching 
against Maxentius, his last competitor for the crown, he 
saw in the heavens a luminous cross, with an inscription 
in Greek, " Conquer by this;" and fighting under the 
standard of the cross, he conquered Maxentius, and em- 
braced Christianity. He put an end to the persecutions 
of the Christians, and to the combats of the gladiators 
and other barbarous exhibitions. 

In 328 he removed the seat of empire from Rome to 
Byzantium, which from him took the name of Constan- 
tinople. This movement is thought to have hastened the 
downfall of the empire. 

Constantine died in 337, and the empire w r as divided 
between his three sons. A terrible civil war ensued, 
which lasted until 353, when Constantms, the young- 
est brother, became sole emperor. 

Julian, the Apostate, succeeded Constantius. He 
established paganism, and attempted to suppress Chris- 
tianity. He was killed in a war with the Persians, and 
succeeded by Jovian, who restored Christianity. 

Valentinian succeeded Jovian in 364, and associated 
with himself his brother Valens, giving to him the 
eastern province, which led to the final separation of the 
empire. Constantinople was the capital of the eastern, 
and Rome of the western empire. 

The Parthians, who were never wholly subdued by 
the Romans, as will be seen by the chart, were conquered, 
and Artabanus V., their last king, killed, A. D. 226. Their 
territory was now annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, 
by Artaxerxes, w r ho had revolted against Parthia. The 
Parthian empire came thus suddenly to an end when it 
had shown few signs of internal decay or weakness. The 
new Persian monarchy, or kingdom of the Sassanidae, 
which succeeded it, continued until 652, when Persia was 
invaded by the Arabs. It did not, however, become the 
seat of the Mohammedans, or Saracens, until 661. 

In 361 the Goths are divided into Ostrogoths and Visi- 
goths, or Eastern and Western Goths. 

We have but few political changes to note on the chart 
during this period, as Rome still maintains her supremacy 
over most of the nations of the East. 

The Eastern Empire now extends from the lower Dan- 



THIRD PERIOD, 324-476. 25 

nbe to the confines of Persia, Constantinople being the 
capital. 

The Western Empire extends from the Caledonian 
ramparts to the foot of Mount Atlas. Koine continued 
to be its capital. 



THIRD PERIOD. 

From the Division, 364, to the Fall op the Western 

Empire, 470,-112 tears. 

The Roman Empire was virtually divided at this time, 
although partially reunited by Theodosius the Great, 
who became emperor of the East, in 379. 

The reign of Theodosius in the East was parallel with 
the reigns of Gratian, Maxinms, Valentinian II., 
and Eiigenius in the West, from 379 to 395. 

Theodosius was a zealous supporter of Christianity, 
and his reign was signalized by the downfall of paganism 
in the Roman dominions. 

The barbarians had made inroads into different parts 
of the empire. The Goths, having been expelled from 
Hungary by the Huns under Attila, were permitted by 
Valens of the East to settle in Thrace and Maesia. They 
revolted under Alaric, and instead of being repressed by 
the Eastern emperor, they were permitted to remove to a 
region from which they could easily menace Italy; and 
the dreadful, ravages of the Western empire which soon 
followed, were supposed to have been encouraged by the 
emperor of the East. 

After two disastrous invasions of the West, Alaric 
marched on Rome, starved the city into submission, and 
entered it, master, 410. He not only sacked Rome, but 
overran all southern Italy. Had not this bold and victo- 
rious Goth died in the midst of his conquests, the West- 
ern empire would probably have come to an end at this 
time. 

After being ravaged through its whole extent by wild, 
savage hordes from Sarmatia and Germany, by the year 
412, Italy was cleared of all its invaders, and once more 
ruled in peace by Theodosius II. * 

But a sadder fate was soon to overtake the extremities 
■of the empire. The Vandals, Burgundians, and others, 
quit Italy and passed into Gaul in 40G, and afterwards 



26 MODERN HISTORY. 

into Spain. The Goths crossed the mountains and drove? 
out the Vandals, and established in Aquitaine and Spain 
the kingdom of the Visigoths, about 409 (see chart) ; but 
which remained nominally subject to Rome until 418, 
when it became independent. 

The Romans at this time had lost all their possessions 
west of the Alps, except the province of Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis. 

By reference to the chart it will be seen that the king- 
dom of the Franks was commenced on the lower Rhine 
420, under Pharamond. In 426 the Romans withdrew 
their last troops from Britain. 

In 439 Genseric takes Carthage, and begins the king- 
dom of the Vandals in Africa. 

In 446, the Britons, abandoned by the Romans, make 
their celebrated complaint to iEtius against the Picts and 
Scots, and three years later the Saxons settle in Britain. 

The Anglo-Saxons, having expelled the Picts and Scots, 
attack the Britons, and drive them into Wales, in 455. 
Two years later the Saxon Heptarchy is established, and 
Britain divided into seven or more kingdoms. 

The next year a new and terrible foe appears in the 
held. Attila, called " The Scourge of God," king of the 
Huns, ravages the Roman empire, and attempts to form 
an immense empire from China to the Atlantic. He was 
finally compelled to retreat to his palace in the wilds of 
Hungary, and in 453 died suddenly on the night of his 
nuptials. 

In 452 Venice is founded by families from Aquileia 
and Padua, fleeing from Attila, "" The Scourge of God." 
The former place was almost totally destroyed by this 
leader of the Huns. 

In 468 the Visigoths, under Euric, establish their 
kingdom, and expel the Romans from Spain. 

Romulus Augustulus (the latter name, meaning 
little Augustus, given in derision), the last of the West- 
ern emperors, ascends the throne, October 31, 475. The 
mercenaries soon demanded one third of the lands of Italy, 
which being refused they took up arms under their Ger- 
man leader, Odoacer, slew Orestus, the emperor's father, 
and deprived Augustulus of his sovereignty. 

The dignity of emperor of the West was formally abol- 
ished, and Odoacer ascends the throne, as the first bar- 
barian " King of Italy." 



FOURTH PERIOD, 476-622. 27 

Here the history of the Western empire terminates ; 
its ruin having been mainly caused by the repeated inva- 
sion of vast hordes of barbarians. Odoacer's sack of 
Eome was the great event which preceded the middle or 
dark ages. 



FOURTH P E E I D . 

From the Beginning of the ' ' Dark Ages," 476, to the 

Hegira, 622, — 146 years. 

The period known in history as the " Dark Ages," or 
Middle Ages, embraces about 1000 years. It is usually 
reckoned from the fall of the "Western Empire of Eome 
to the overthrow of the Eastern or Greek Empire. Or, 
according to Hallam, it comprises the time between the 
invasion of France by Clovis, 481-5, and that of Naples, 
by Charles VIII, 1492-5. During this period, ignorance 
and superstition prevailed, almost universally. 

In 493 Tlieodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, 
takes Ravenna, the former capital of the West, and the 
kingdom of Italy passes from the Heruli to the Ostrogoths. 
Theodoric reigned over Italy about 33 years, and his reign 
was characterized by wisdom and prudence. 

The reign of Justinian I. was one of the most bril- 
liant, of the emperors of the East during this period. He 
succeeded his uncle, Justinius I., in 527, having been his 
co-emperor for nine years before. His reign was marked 
by the victories of one of the greatest and best military 
commanders that ever lived — Belisarius, who regained 
Italy, Sicily, and Africa, from the barbarian conquerors 
and spoilers of the empire. He was seconded by Narses, 
and other able soldiers. He caused a code of laws to be 
compiled by Tribonian and otbers, which all western 
Europe received, and which survived the fall of the em- 
pire. But he suppressed the schools of philosophy, and 
maintained his own dogmas by the sword. During his 
reign the people were so utterly fallen, that sanguinary 
contests, endangering the very throne of Justinian, took 
place between the charioteers in the circus, when the 
enemy was at the gate. He died in 505, at the age of 
83 years, having reigned 38 years, and was succeeded by 
Justin II. 



28 MODEBN HISTOKY. 

The French Monarchy is founded by Clovis, 
chief of the Salian Franks, who invaded Gaul 481-6. 
A few years later Clovis embraces Christianity, and is 
baptized. In 507 he conquers the Visigoths, and firmly 
establishes the kingdom of the Franks ; the country 
being afterwards called France. Three years later he 
makes Paris the capital of the kingdom. 

Clovis and his ancestors are called, in the history of 
France, Merovingians. This dynasty lasted until 
752, a little more than 250 years. Mayors of the Palace 
were high officers in France, and had great influence 
during the Merovingian kings. 

In 568 Italy is conquered by the Lombards under 
Alboin ; the old Roman municipal system is overthrown, 
and the feudal system established. In 607 the suprem- 
acy of the pope is acknowledged in Britain. 

The Saracens, — meaning Eastern People — an Arab 
race, now appear in history, as the first disciples of 
Mahomet, or Mohammed. Saracens is equivalent to 
Mussulmans, and is often used as the general name of 
the Arabians. It is not so much the name of the people 
of a country, as it is of the professors of a religion. 

The preaching of Mahomet, who pretended to have a 
divine mission, and new revelation from God, met with 
violent opposition at Mecca, a city of Arabia, where lie 
was born, and he was compelled to flee to Medina. 

The history of the thousand years styled the " Dark 
Ages," has received less attention by students generally 
than its importance demands. But those who wish to be 
informed of the more important events which occurred 
during that period, are referred to Synchronology of 
Ancient and Modern History, where these events can be 
easily learned without the necessity of poring over vol- 
umes of uninteresting matter. 



FIFTH PERIOD. 
From the Hegira, 622, to Charlemagne at Rome, 800, — 

178 YEARS. 

Hegira, in chronology, is the era whence the Moham- 
medans compute their time. On the night of July 15, 
622, Mohammed fled from Mecca to Medina, and this 
era commences on the 16th of that month. Thirty-three 



FIFTH PERIOD, 622-800. 29 

of the lunar years of this era were equal to 32 of those of 
the vulgar era. 

The cardinal principle of Mohammed's creed was, 
" There is but one God, and Mohammed is his prophet." 
His prophetic character being acknowledged at Medina 
whither he had fled, he began to make loftier claims, and 
to assert that the sw T ord was the instrument of suasion 
which he should employ. During the ten years that 
intervened between his flight and his death, he gained 
all the most warlike chiefs to his banner; his whole 
army being animated with the most absorbing fanaticism, 
w^ere everywhere successful. He won his way slowly 
from Arabia to Palestine, took Jerusalem, and attacked 
Chosroes, of Persia, and Heraclius, the Byzantine em- 
peror. He also prepared for the invasion of Egypt. In 
632, at the age of 63 years, he died. 

A few years later, as will be seen by the chart, Egypt 
and Persia were conquered by his followers, the Saracens. 

The Mohammedans were divided into several sects ; 
the two chief being the Sonnifcs, or the orthodox, whose 
chief seat is the Ottoman empire ; and the Shiites (Secre- 
taries), or Fatimites, whose stronghold is in Persia. 

Early in the 8th century the Saracens invaded Europe, 
and founded the Caliphate of Cordova in Spain, after 
destroying the monarchy of the Visigoths which had 
continued for more than two centuries, 712. 

Europe was no doubt rescued from Mohammedan 
rule by the celebrated Charles Martel, of France, wiio 
defeated the victorious Saracens between Tours and 
Poictiers, in October, 732. 

The temporal power of the Pope commenced in 752, 
under the auspices of Pepin the Short, king of France, 
who 'bestows on Stephen II., Pope, the exarchate of Ra- 
venna. 

In 678-80 the Bulgarians establish a kingdom in 
Moesia (now Bulgaria) in European Turkey, and after- 
wards ravage the country as far as Constantinople. They 
continued a formidable foe to the Eastern or Greek 
empire. 

By reference to the chart it will be seen that by the 
conquests of the Saracens during this period, the Greek 
empire lost nearly all its possessions in Africa and Asia. 

The Danes make their first hostile descent upon the 
British coast in 787. A few years later they invade 



30 MODERN HISTORY. 

Scotland and Ireland, and possess themselves of Dublin, 
Fingal, and other places. 

The Danish chronicles mention eighteen kings to the 
time of Eagnor Lodbrog, 750 (see table of kings of Den- 
mark), who was killed in an attempt to invade Eng- 
land, 794. 

Charles I. of France and Germany, commonly called 
Charlemagne, becomes joint successor, with his brother 
Carloman, to Pepin, in 768. At the death of Carloman, 
772, Charlemagne becomes sole monarch of France. 

All the early part of his reign was taken up in war. 
In 774 he invades Italy, takes Pavia, defeats Didier, king 
of Lombardy, puts an end to that kingdom, and annexes 
Italy to France. (See chart.) In 779 he conquers Na- 
varre, Sardinia, and the Saxons. He enforces the impo- 
sition of tithes for the support of the clergy, churches, 
schools, and the poor. He afterwards restores Pope 
Leo III. to his throne from which he had been driven bv 
a formidable conspiracy, for which he is crowned at 
Eome by the Pope, king of Italy, Germany, and France, 
A. D. 800. He forms the new empire of the West, when 
the Pope separates from the Eastern empire, and be- 
■ comes supreme bishop of the Western. Ignorance, profli- 
gacy, and misery characterize the age preceding Charle- 
magne. 



SIXTH PERIOD. 

From Charlemagne, 800, to William the Conqueror, 1066, 

— 266 YEARS. 

At the commencement of this period we find Charle- 
magne emperor of Italy, France, and Germany. 

The political changes from this time increase rapidly 
in number, and should be carefully observed on the chart. 
It is impossible to mark them all by colors, but all the 
more important are represented. 

The motives of Leo III. for the revival of the empire 
of the West in the person of Charlemagne have afforded 
a theme for discussion of which historians have not 
failed to avail themselves. But there can be but little 
doubt that he had reason to hope that Italy, which had 
so long been a dependent province, would soon rise to a 
.first place, and be recognized as an empire. 



SIXTH PERIOD, 800-1066. 31 

But the motives of Charlemagne in accepting the 
imperial crown are not so apparent, as he must have 
apprehended the danger of exciting the jealousy of the 
Greek emperors of the East, as well as the uncertainty 
that the Franks would cordially accede to his deriving 
more unlimited authority from another nation, than they 
conceded to their kings. 

Charlemagne soon added a second head to the eagle to 
denote that the empires of Rome and Germany are 
united in him. In assuming the title of emperor, 
Charlemagne had little desire to plunge himself into 
new wars. An easy mode of reconciling the jarring 
interests of the East and the West was suggested to him, 
but whether by his own political sagacity, or by the 
officious zeal of the Roman pontiff, does not appear. 

The actual possessor of the disputed territories was a 
widow (Irene, queen of the Eastern empire^, and Charle- 
magne is now free to contract a new alliance. It was 
soon agitated that the extinction of opposing claims 
might be secured by the union of opposing claimants. 
This proposed union, although mutually agreeable, was 
prevented by the opposition of Aetius, who had been 
raised by Irene to the highest station of the empire, with 
the hope of raising his brother to the imperial dignity. 
Pacific proposals were at once made for the settlement 
of the claims of the two nations. While negotiations 
were pending at Constantinople, a revolution at the im- 
perial court suddenly interrupted the proceedings. A7- 
cephorus, the great treasurer, was secretly invested with 
the purple, and crowned at St. Sophia by the venal 
patriarch as Irene's successor, in 802. As soon as Ni- 
cephorus had usurped the throne from the usurper, he 
hastened to conclude the peace which Irene had begun, 
and the election of Charlemagne was recognized by the 
emperor of the East. 

From this time to 810 Charlemagne was engaged suc- 
cessively in wars with the Danes, Bohemians, and Ve- 
netians. 

At the close of the Venetian war, the dominions of 
Charlemagne included all of France and Belgium, 
bounded by the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Ocean, the Medi- 
terranean, and the Rhine. To these were added, to the 
south, all that part of Spain comprised between the Ebro 
and Pyrenees, and to the north, the whole of Germany, 



32 MODERN HISTORY. 

to the banks of the Elbe. Italy, as far as the Lower Ca- 
labria, was either governed by his son, or tributary to 
his crown ; and Dalmatia, Croatia, Liburnia, and Istria, 
with the exception of the maritime cities, were joined to 
the conquered territories of Hungary and Bohemia. 
The east of Europe acknowledged his power as far as 
the conflux of the Danube with the Teyss and the Save. 
Most of the Sclavonian tribes between the Elbe and 
Vistula, paid tribute and professed obedience ; and Cor- 
sica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles were dependent on 
the emperor's possessions in Italy and Spain. 

Charlemagne died in 814, at the age of 72 years, and 
in the 47th year of his reign. 

We have devoted more space to the reign of Charle- 
magne than we should, had not its importance been 
usually too much ignored. But the character of Charle- 
magne can only be appreciated by comparing it with the 
barbarism of the times from which it emerged. 

Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed also Debonnaire, suc- 
ceeded his father, 814. In 839-40 he divided the empire 
among his sons. Lothaire, the eldest, received Italy 
and a part of Germany ; Louis, called the German, took 
the rest of Germany, and Charles II., the Bald, was 
crowned king of France. 

The republic of Venice becomes completely founded 
at the commencement of the ninth century. 

Genoa, after undergoing the revolutions of the Bo- 
man empire, becomes a free commercial state about 1000. 

Sicily, which was taken from the Goths for the Greek 
emperors, by Belisarius, 535, was conquered by the Sara- 
cens, 832. In 1059 the Greeks and Arabs are driven out 
by a Norman prince, Boger I., who afterwards takes the 
title of Count of Sicily. 

Switzerland, the ancient Helvetia, was converted to 
Christianity by Irish missionaries in 612. It is ravaged 
by the Huns in 909, and in 1032 becomes subject to 
Germany. 

Alsace, formerly a part of the kingdom of Austrasia, 
is incorporated with the German empire in the tenth 
century. 

Burgundy, a large province in France, received its 
name from a Gothic tribe, known as Burgundians, who 
overran Gaul, 275. In 877 Charles the Bald made his 
brother-in-law, Kichard, the first duke of Burgundy. In 



SIXTH PERIOD, 800-1066. 33 

938, Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, founder of the 
house of Capet, obtained the duchy. 

Scotland. After many sanguinary wars between the 
Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Kenneth Mac Alpine ob- 
tains a decisive victory over the Picts, in 843. He unites 
the whole country under one government, and gives it 
the name of Scotland. 

Russia is said to have been invaded by the Huns 
about a. d. 376. Eurick the Norman builds the city of 
Ladogas, and becomes grand duke, S62. 

Denmark. The Danes were referred to in the pre- 
ceding period ; but the more certain history of Denmark 
commences with the reign of Gormo the Old, who sub- 
dued Jutland, and united all the Danish states under his 
scepter, in 863. 

In 1016 Edmund II., Ironsides, of England, fights six 
battles with Canute the Great, of Denmark, with whom 
he finally divides the kingdom. 

Norway, until the 7th century, was governed by 
petty rulers. After a long series of changes arising from 
internal dissensions and foreign invasions, it was invaded 
and conquered by Canute II., of Denmark, 1019-28. 

Sweden. The original inhabitants of Sweden were 
the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of Finland, who 
retired to their present territory on the approach of the 
Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been mas- 
ters of Sweden. But little is known of the internal 
state of this kingdom prior to 1000, when Olaf, the infant, 
is baptized and introduces ChristianhVv. 

Poland, a part of ancient Sarmatia, is said to have 
become a duchy about the middle of the sixth century, 
and a kingdom about 992. 

Spain. Castile, a powerful Gothic government, was 
established in Central Spain about 800. Ferdinand, 
Count of Castile, became king, 1035. The kingdom of 
Aragon became an independent monarchy about the 
same time. Two years later, 1037, Leon and Asturias 
are united to Castile. 

Portugal, the ancient Lucitania, After a nine 
years' struggle, the Lucitanians submitted to the Roman 
arms, about 137 b. c. Portugal underwent about the 
same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman em- 
pire. It was conquered by the Moors in 713. (See next 
period.) 



34 MODERN HISTORY. 

Fatiniites, or sect of AM, were founded by Ali, who 
married Mohammed's daughter, Fatima, 032. They 
were so called for the reason they were believed to be the 
descendants of Fatima. They established themselves in 
Egypt, where they remained, with Cairo for their capital, 
until near the close of the twelfth century, when their 
dynasty is succeeded by the famous Saladin who estab- 
lishes the dominion of the 

Mamelukes. These were originally Turkish and 
Circassian slaves. They were afterwards established by 
the Sultan as a body-guard. They advanced one of their 
own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until 
Egypt became a Turkish province, in 1517. 

Seljuks (SeVyooks). The Seljukian Turks were the 
ancient inhabitants of Central Asia. They should not 
be confounded with Ottoman Turks, who will be noticed 
in the next period in connection with the Ottoman em- 
pire. 

During the 11th century, serious dissensions occurred 
among the Saracens, of which the Turks took advantage, 
and conquered Persia. They are expelled, near the close 
of the 12th century. 

%j 

England. The Saxons first came into Britain dur- 
ing the fourth century. Having expelled the Britons, 
and finding no other enemies to subdue, they began to 
quarrel among themselves. Finally Egbert, king of 
Wessex, reduces all the other kingdoms to subjection, 
and is crowned king, 827. Here the Saxon Heptarchy 
ends, seven kingdoms being united into one under the 
name of England. It was so named by order of Egbert, 
in a general council held at Winchester, 829. 

England continued under the Anglo-Saxon kings for 
nearly two centuries. During this period England is 
ruled by fifteen different kings, as will be seen by refer- 
ence to table of " kings of England," on the large chart. 
The most eminent of these was 

Alfred the Great, who reigned from 872 to 901. 
After many unsuccessful engagements with the Danes, 
who had continued their piratical incursions for several 
years, and had nearly subdued England, he gained a 
complete victory over them. 

The struggle with the Danes is renewed and continued 
during the reigns of Alfred's successors, until the reign 
of Ethelred II., who compounds with the Danes for peace. 



SEVENTH PERIOD, 1066-1299. 35 

But in 1002 he issues a secret order for the massacre of 
all the Danes in England, which order was carried into 
execution on the 13th of November, which is the feast 
of St. Brice. 

This barbarous act is soon avenged by Sweyn, king of 
Denmark, who lands a large army in England, and brings 
war and all its miseries upon the country. 

Ethelred flees to Normandy, and Sweyn himself is 
proclaimed king. On the death of Sweyn, Ethelred re- 
turns. In 1016 his successor, Edmund II., Ironsides, 
is defeated by Canute, successor to Sweyn, who becomes 
sole monarch of England. 

Danish kings continued to govern England until 1041, 
when Hardicanute, the last Danish monarch, had so 
exasperated the people by taxing them as a conquered 
country, that they threw off the Danish yoke, and re- 
stored the Saxon dynasty under Edward the Confessor, 
a younger son of Ethelred II. 

Having resided among the Normans, Edward intro- 
duced into England many of the customs of that people, 
and showed a strong attachment to them. This gave 
offence to the English nobles, especially Earl Godwin. 
At the death of Godwin, his eldest son, Harold, became 
anxious to succeed Edward, who had no children, on the 
throne. At the death of Edward, 10GG, Harold is 
elected king. But William of Normandy soon asserts 
his right to the throne under pretence that Edward had 
left it to him in his will. William invaded England with 
a large army, met the army of Harold on the 14th of Oc- 
tober, when was fought the celebrated battle of Hastings. 
Harold was killed, his army defeated, and William the 
Conqueror was soon at the gates of the capital. He 
was crowned at Westminster on Christmas day, Decem- 
ber 25, 1066, when was completed what has since been 
known in history as the " Conquest of England." 



SEVENTH PERIOD. 

From William the Conqueror, 1066, to the Ottoman Em- 
pire, 1299,-233 years. 

William the Conqueror was the first of the six Norman 
kings who reigned from 1066 to 1141. He was an able 



36 MODERN HISTOEY. 

statesman as well as warrior. One of the most important 
acts of his reign was the compilation of "Domesday 
Book/' or Doomsday ; a book of the general survey of 
England. It was intended to be a register whereby to 
determine the right of the tenure of estates. 

The Feudal laics, the tenure of land by suit and service 
to the lord or owner, were introduced into England by 
the Saxons about GOO ; but this slavery was increased 
in 1070. 

William the Conqueror was killed at Mantes during an 
invasion of France in 1087, leaving three sons. 

To Robert, the eldest, he devised Normandy; to Wil- 
liam he gave the crown of England, and to Henry, the 
youngest, he left the fortune of his mother, Matilda. 

William II., sur named Rufus, was crowned Sep- 
tember 26, 1087. During his reign occurred the first of 

The Crusades. . After the capture of Jerusalem by 
the Turks, the Christian pilgrims were often robbed and 
oppressed, and these crusades were undertaken by the 
Christian powers to drive the Infidels from Jerusalem 
and the adjacent countries called the Holy Land. They 
were projected by Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic 
French officer of Amiens, who turned pilgrim. There 
were eight of these crusades, and they were attended by 
varied results. The last was undertaken in 1270, and 
resulted in the Christians being driven out of Syria. 

The influence of the Crusades was great, tending to 
expand the minds of Europe, to break up the feudal 
system, refine the manners, promote improvements in 
the arts and sciences, and to undermine, rather than 
strengthen, the power of Papal Kome. 

William II. was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, 
a Norman knight, while hunting in New Forest, and was 
succeeded, in 1100, by his younger brother, 

Henry I., the Scholar. Henry was crowned king in 
violation of the right of his older brother who was absent 
in the Holy Land. To conciliate his Anglo-Saxon friends, 
Henry restored Edward the Confessor's code of laws, to 
which that people were much attached. He married 
Maud, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, who was of 
Anglo-Saxon descent ; thus more firmly uniting the 
Saxon and Norman interests. 

But England reaped little good from all this. The 
poor were ground down by his extortions, and the ra- 



SEVENTH PERIOD, 1066-1299. 37 

pacity of the nobles and the clergy increased their suffer- 
ings. Henry had bought Normandy of his brother 
Robert when he joined the first crusade, and after his 
return continued to keep possession of it. He was often 
at war with the French king, but in the end gained the 
advantage over him. He died in 1 135, and was succeeded 
by his nephew, 

Stephen. It had been the desire of Henry I. that 
the throne should be given his daughter, Matilda, at his 
death. She was now Countess of Anjou, and attempts 
in her favor were soon made in the north of England, 
and gradually spread into all parts of the kingdom. In 
1114, at the battle of Lincoln, Stephen was taken pris- 
oner by the troops of Matilda, who was soon after de- 
feated at Winchester. England was nearly destroyed 
during this period of insane civil war. Matilda, or Maud, 
finally concluded a peace with Stephen, by which he was 
restored, and the succession to the throne secured to her 
son, Henry Plantagenet. 

Henry II., the first of the House of Plantagenet, or 
Anjou, ascended the throne in 1154. It was during his 
reign the constitutions of Clarendon were enacted, which 
were opposed by the celebrated Thomas a Becket, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. Becket is compelled to flee to 
Prance ; but afterwards returns to England, and is mur- 
dered at the altar, December 29, 1170. In 1172 Henry II. 
takes possession of Ireland ; which from that time is 
governed by an English viceroy or lord-lieutenant. 

Richard I., surnamed from his chivalric prowess 
"Oceur de Lion," or Lion-hearted, the son of Henry II., 
is crowned September 3d, 1189. In 1191 he joins the 
Crusades, and the next year, at the battle of Ascalon, he 
defeats the army of Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt. On 
his return he was arrested and imprisoned by Henry VI. 
of Germany. He is ransomed by his subjects for 
£400,000. 

John, the brother of Richard, succeeds to the throne 
in 1199. Normandy is soon conquered by Philip, of 
Prance, and annexed to his dominions. It being thus 
lost to England, John, the king, receives the surname of 
Lackland. 

Magna Charta (the Great Charter). The funda- 
mental parts of the great charter of English liberty were 
derived from Saxon charters. It was granted to the 



38 MODERN HISTORY. 

nobles, but secured protection to all. John at first re- 
fused to sign it, but was finally compelled to do so, June 
15, 1215. 

Henry III., son of John, commenced his long and 
turbulent reign, 1216, when he was but ten years old- 
England was governed by the guardians of King Henry 
until he was 16 years of age. The great partiality shown 
by him to foreigners, and his faithlessness, led to frequent 
disputes with the barons, and resulted in what is known 
as the "Barons' War." At the battle of Lewes, 1204, 
the king's party were totally defeated. The war was- 
renewed through treachery, and the next year the barons 
were defeated at the battle of Evesham, and in 1258 ren- 
dered their final submission. The first regular Parlia- 
ment was formed during the reign of Henry III. 

Edward I., son of Henry III., succeeds to the throne 
in 1272. One of the most important events of Edward's 
reign was the 

Conquest of Wales. Many of the Britons retired to 
Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons in 
their inaccessible mountains, about 117. 

In this state Wales remained unconquered until 1157, 
when Henry II. subdued South Wales. In 1282 the 
whole country was entirely reduced by Edward L, and an 
end put to its independence by the death of Llewelyn,, 
the last prince. 

He subdues Scotland in 1296, but it rebels in 1297. 
(See next period.) 

Germany. Henry IV., emperor of Germany at the 
commencement of this period, having incurred the dis- 
pleasure of Pope Gregory VII., the celebrated Hilde- 
brand, is compelled by the pope to stand three days, in 
depth of winter, barefoot, at the gate of the castle of 
Canossa, to implore his pardon. Henry afterwards de- 
grades the pope for his intrigues ; he triumphs over him, 
and takes Rome in 1084. Gregory flees to Salerno, and 
dies in exile the next year. 

Conrad III., of Germany, leads a large army to the 
Holy Wars (Crusades) in 1117, which is entirely de- 
stroyed through the treachery of the Greeks. 

Frederick I., Barbarossa, who ascended the 
throne in 1152, was engaged in wars with the Italian 
republics from 1154 to 1177. He is drowned during the 
crusade in Syria in 1190. 



SEVENTH PERIOD, 10GG-1299. 39 

During the remainder of this period, the emperors of 
Germany were successively engaged almost continually 
in civil or foreign wars. 

In 1273, Kodolph, Count of Hapsburg, seizes Austria 
from Bohemia, and makes himself archduke. He founds 
the house of Hapsburg. 

Italy. From 1073-85 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed 
Hildebrand, pretends to universal sovereignty, in which 
he is assisted by Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, mistress 
of the greater part of Italy. 

In the twelfth century the Guelphs and Ghibelines, 
Papal and Imperial factions, commenced those wars 
which agitated Italy and destroyed its peace until the 
invasion of Charles" VIII. of France, 1495. It was in 
these wars that Frederick I. of Germany interfered. He 
destroyed Milan in 1162, but was defeated at Legnano in 
Lombardy, by the Milanese and their allies, May 29, 1176, 
which victory led to the treaty of Constance, in 1183. 

Sicily. "Roger II., son of Roger I., a Norman 
prince, unites Sicily with Naples, and is crowned king of 
the two Sicilies, 1131. 

The French becoming hated by the Sicilians, a general 
massacre takes place throughout the whole island of 
Sicily, without regard to age or sex, to the number of 
SOOO" of the French, on Faster day, 1282. This is known 
in history as the " Sicilian Vespers." 

Empire of the Tartars. During the decline of 
the Soman empire, the Tartars, Mongols, or Moguls, 
known in antiquity as Scythians, began to seek more 
fertile regions. The Huns," the ancestors of the modern 
Mongols, were the first to reach the frontier of Italy. 

The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country 
was the famous Genghis Khan. His empire, by the con- 
quest of Persia, China, and all Central Asia, became one 
of the most formidable ever established, 1206-27. 

Empire of the Turks. The Turks were origin- 
ally a tribe of Tartars ; but must now be regarded as a 
mixed race. During the eighth century they obtained 
possession of a part of Armenia which they called Tur- 
comania. They gradually extended their power, until in 
the 13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, 
they returned to Asia Minor. Their dominions, which 
had been divided for some time into petty states, were 
united under Othman in 1299, who assumed the title of 



40 31 D E R X H I S T R Y . 

sultan, and in honor of its founder the government is 
called the Ottoman Empire. 



EIGHTH PERIOD. 

From the Founding of the Ottoman Empire, 1299, to the 
End of the Eastern Empire, 1453, — 154 years. 

The more important events which occurred in connec- 
tion with the Turkish or Ottoman empire, until the fall 
of Constantinople in 1453, will be noticed with those 
of the Eastern or Greek empire near the close of this 
period. 

Asia. We have but few political changes to note on 
the chart, in Asia, during this period. The empire of 
Genghis Khan, after a few reigns, is divided into parts. 
Timour, or Tamerlane, the great Tartar conqueror, again 
conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in Asia 
Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in 
India, which began with Baber, about 1525. It extended 
from the Indus to the Ganges, and formed the most 
splendid court in Asia till the close of the 18th century- 
Spain. Early in the 14th century, about 200.000 
Moors arrive in Spain to assist the king of Granada, a 
kingdom in the south of Spain, founded by the Moors in 
the 13th century. This kingdom was highly prosperous 
until its subjugation, 1492, by Ferdinand V. of Castile. 

Flanders became part of the kingdom of France in 
843, and was governed by counts, subject to the king, 
until 1369. At this time Philip, duke of Burgundy, 
married Margaret, the heiress of Count Louis II. After 
this, Flanders was subject alternately to Burgundy (1384), 
Austria (1477), and Spain (1555). 

Savoy shared the revolutions of Switzerland until 
the middle of the 11th century, when Conrad, emperor 
of Germany, gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. 
Count Thomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th cen- 
tury. Sigismund, of Germany, erected it into a duchy 
at Cambray, in 1417. 

In 1442' Sicily was again united to Xaples, and the 
kinss ever afterwards known as King of the two Sicilies. 

Switzerland. The tyranny of Gesler occasions the 
memorable revolt under the patriot William Tell, in 1306. 



EIGHTH PERIOD, 1299-1453. 41 

For refusing to do homage to the German emperor's hat, 
which the governor had set up on a pole, he was seized 
and sentenced to death ; but soon after secured his re- 
lease, when he shot the governor with an arrow from 
his redoubtable bow. This led to the outbreak of the 
war for liberation in which Tell took part. A confed- 
eration is formed against Austria, and Swiss independ- 
ence declared, 1807. In 1315 this form of government 
is made perpetual. 

France. During the reign of Edw^ard III. of Eng- 
land the English invade France. August 26, 1346, 
Philip VI. of France is defeated by Edward III. and his 
son, the Black Prince, at Cressy, or Crecy. 

In 1356, King John of France is defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Black Prince, at Poictiers. 

In 1420, Henry V. of England is acknowledged heir 
to the kingdom. Two years later, Henry VI. is 
crowmed at Paris. 

After the death of Henry V. the state of affairs in 
France became so lamentable that Joan of Arc, maid 
of Orleans, tired with patriotic and religious enthusiasm, 
undertook to deliver the city of Orleans, which was then 
besieged by the English. On this hung the last hope of 
Charles VII. She compelled the English to retire, de- 
feated them again at Patay, and had Charles VII. sol- 
emnly cro wned at Rheims in 1429. Two years later, at 
the siege of Compiegne, she is taken prisoner," and, to the 
disgrace of England, burned as a witch, May 30, 1431, at 
the age of about 22 years. 

Between 1434 and 1450, England lost all her posses- 
sions in France, except Calais. 

Germany. At the commencement of this period, 
the Swiss towns rise into importance. They are op- 
pressed by the house of Hapsburg. 

Bohemia derives its name from the Boii — a Celtic 
tribe. It was governed by dukes, until Ottocar assumed 
the title of king, 1198. The crown was elective until it 
came to the house of Austria, in which it is now heredi- 
tary. In 1414, Sigismund, king of Bohemia, is elected 
emperor of Germany. He betrays John Huss and Je- 
rome of Prague, two of the first reformers, who are 
burned alive for heresy. This occasions an insurrec- 
tion ; Sigismund is deposed, and the Imperialists driven 
from the kingdom. Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds 



42 MODEEK HISTORY. 

to the throne of Germany in 1437. In his family the 
crown resides for three centuries. 

Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, the three Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms, are united under the scepter of Mar- 
garet, then queen of Sweden and Norway, by the "Union 
of Calmar," in 1397. This union is dissolved by Griis- 
tavus Vasa in 1523. 

England. The invasion of France by the English 
during this period has already been referred to under the 
head of France. Although there is much of interest in 
the history of England during this period, we have no 
political changes to note on the chart, except in connec- 
tion with 

Scotland. Edward of England, wishing to annex 
Scotland to England, ravages the countiy. His army is 
defeated by William "Wallace, who is afterwards betrayed 
to the English king, and put to death in 1305, at the age 
of 30 years. In 1314, Eobert Bruce defeated Edward II. 
at the battle of Bannockburn, which established the 
former on the throne of Scotland. He was first crowned 
in 130G. 

Eastern, or Greek Empire. In 1390 the Eastern 
empire loses all its Greek possessions in Asia. Help is 
vainly solicited from the Western sovereigns. In 1402, 
the Greek empire is made tributary to Timour, who dis- 
members the empire of the Turkish sovereign the next 
year. Constantinople is besieged, but the dissensions 
among the Turks delayed its fall. In 1448, Constan- 
tine XIII., the last emperor, ascends the throne. Three 
years later, Mahomet II. ascends the throne of the Turk- 
ish, or Ottoman empire. He begins the siege of Con- 
stantinople, April, 1453, and takes it May 29, and the 
Eastern, or Byzantine empire is at an end. Mahomet 
grants to the Christians personal security and the free 
exercise of their religion. 



XI NT II PERIOD. 

From the End of the Eastern Empire, 1453, to the Revo- 
lution in England, 1088, — 2oo years. 

Ottoman. Empire. Soon after the fall of Constan- 
tinople and the Eastern Empire, Mahomet the Con- 



ninth period, 1453-1688. 43 



? 



qneror commenced to enlarge the Turkish territories; 
and these efforts were successfully continued by his suc- 
cessors. In 1458 Greece is made subject to the Moham- 
medans, and remains subject to the Ottoman empire 
until the present century. 

Bajazet II., son of Mahomet II., who reigned from 
1481 to 1512, extended the dominions of the Ottoman 
empire to nearly its present limits. 

Under his successors, Selim I., 1512, and Soly- 
maii II., 1520, the Turkish arms are still successful. 
In 1514 the islands of the Archipelago are taken from 
the Christians ; and two years later Cairo is taken from 
the Mamelukes, and Egypt reduced to a Turkish prov- 
ince. The progress of the Turks was finally checked at 
the battle of Lepanto, near Corinth, October 7, 1571, 
when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, Genoa, Malta, 
and Pius V., commanded bv Don John of Austria, de- 
feated the whole maritime force of Turkey. 

Persia. In 1501 the Fatimite Mohammedans estab- 
lish the Sophi dynasty under Ismael, who soon makes 
himself sole sovereign of Persia. 

China. During the 11th century China was ravaged 
by Tartars. In 1260 the capital is transferred to Pekin. 
The country is conquered by the Eastern Tartars 1616-48, 
who establish the present reigning house. 

Tunis and Tripoli remained under African kings 
until taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman II. Taken by 
the emperor, Charles V., and 10,000 Christian slaves set 
at liberty, 1535. Bey of Tunis first appointed, 1570. 

Spain. The Mohammedans are expelled from Spain 
about 1500. In 1516 the house of Austria accede to 
the throne of Spain ; Charles I. of Spain, three years 
later, is made emperor of Germany— Charles V., and be- 
comes one of the greatest monarch s of ancient or modern 
times. In 1556 he abdicates and retires to the mon- 
astery of St. Just in Spain. At this time he is reign- 
ing over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, 
the Netherlands and their dependencies. He leaves his 
German dominions to his brother, Ferdinand, and 
Spain, the Netherlands, and some parts of Italy to his 
son, Philip II. 

In 1580 Portugal is annexed to Spain by conquest; 
but is lost by Philip IV. in 1640. 

Naples and Sicily are united to Spain in 1504 



,4. 



44 MODERN HISTORY. 

The real greatness of Spain may be said to have com- 
menced with the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, under 
whose auspices America was discovered by Columbus, 1492. 

Germany. The reign of Charles V. of Germany 
has already been noticed in connection with Spain. The 
most important events of German history during this 
period resulted from the preaching of Martin Luther. 
The reformation commenced about 1517, when Luther 
opposed the sale of indulgences by the Eoman church. 
The preaching of Luther and other reformers met with 
violent opposition by the German government. The 
followers of Luther, who protested against the Catholics, 
were called Protestants, and the two sects were soon en- 
gaged in war. In 1618 was begun in Bohemia what is 
known as the Thirty Years' War, caused by an attempt 
to extinguish Protestantism. The Protestant Union 
were under Frederick, Elector-palatine, son-in-law of 
James I. of England, and the Catholic League under the 
duke of Bavaria. In 1620, at the battle of Prague, 
Frederick was defeated and compelled to flee to Hol- 
land, by which the Protestant interest was ruined in 
Bohemia. 

In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invades Ger- 
many, as the champion of Protestantism. He marches 
successfully through the country, and defeats the impe- 
rial army under Tilly, at the battle of Leipsic (Saxony), 
September 7, 1631. He again defeats the imperial army 
at Lutzen (N. Germany), November 6, 1632 ; but was 
himself foully killed at the moment of victory. The 
Thirty Years' War ended by the treaty of Westphalia, 
establishing religious toleration. 

France. The changes in France which are noted on 
the chart, are those in connection with England, and are 
referred to under that head. The followers of Calvin, 
the reform party in France, known as Huguenots, took 
up arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delu- 
sive edict of toleration, a great number were massacred 
at Vassy, 1562, when the civil wars began, which contin- 
ued, with but little intermission, until 1599, when by the 
"Edict of Nantes," Henry IV. allows liberty of conscience 
to the Huguenots. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
day in 1572, when 70,000 Huguenots perished, occurred 
during a truce. The " Edict of Nantes" was revoked by 
Louis XIV. in 1685. This act cost France 50,000 Prot- 



ninth period, 1453-1688. 45 

estant families, who fled to England, and the English 
North American Colonies. 

America. It was in the early part of this period 
that America appears as the first nation having a com- 
plete history. Its history dates back no further than its 
discovery by Columbus, 1492, although it is believed to 
have been visited by the Norsemen, or Normans, as early 
as the tenth century. 

The earliest settlements on this continent were made, 
as will be seen by reference to the chart, in South Amer- 
ica by the Spaniards, early in the 16th century. 

The early history of North America is confined to the 
accounts of its discoverers, and but partially successful 
efforts at settlements and colonization. The event which 
was perhaps most important in its results, that occurred 
during this period within the present limits of the.United 
States, was the settlement of New England by the Eng- 
lish " Nonconformists," or Puritans, who arrived at Plvm- 
outh, Massachusetts, December 21, 1620. 

England. The history of England, during this pe- 
riod, is of more than ordinary interest, although but few 
changes are noted on the chart. The struggle with 
France is still continued. By reference to the chart, and 
the article on France in the preceding period, it will be 
seen that England lost nearly all her French possessions 
during the 15th century; Calais only remaining. Jan- 
uary 7, 1558, during the reign of Queen Mary, Calais is 
taken by the Duke of Guise. 

During the reign of Elizabeth, Mary Queen of Scots, 
being compelled to flee from Scotland, took refuge in 
England, and sought the protection of Elizabeth. Mary 
was the grand-daughter of Henry VII., and claimed to be 
the legal heir to the throne of England. While there 
she assumed the title of " Queen of England,"' on the 
ground that the marriage of Henry VIIL, Elizabeth's fa- 
ther, with Anne Boleyn was illegal, and his daughter had 
no right to the throne. This gave great offence to Eliza- 
beth, and led ultimately to the execution of Mary. 

James VI., son of Mary Queen of Scots, was pro- 
claimed king of Scotland, 1567. In 1603 the English 
and Scotch crowns are united, and James VI. of Scotland 
becomes James I. of England, the first of the house of 
Stuart. He is proclaimed by the style of "King of 
Great Britain, France, and Ireland," October 24, 1604. 



46 MODEEK HISTORY. 

The Civil War. Charles I., son of James L, as- 
cended the throne and commenced his reign nnder very 
unfavorable auspices. He had been badly taught by his 
father, by his boasted kingcraft, and by the Duke of 
Buckingham, his leader and companion. His marriage 
with Princess Henrietta Maria of France, a zealous Ro- 
manist, at a time when the nation had just escaped from 
the Romanism of Philip II. of Spain, tended but to in- 
flame the passions of those opposed to the doctrines of 
the church of Rome. He soon became unpopular with 
his Parliament, and during the first four years of his 
reign summoned three parliaments, and with each he 
found the same difficulties. The famous " Long Parlia- 
ment," Charles' last, was summoned. But the steps they 
took were of the most determined kind. The king next 
refused to suffer the power of summoning the militia to 
go out of his hands. Then came the war. Most of the 
Lords were with the Commons in the struggles. The 
first parliamentary leader in the held was Oliver Crom- 
well. October 23, 1642, the royalist and the parliament 
troops had their first engagement of importance at Edge- 
hill. The issue was doubtful. July 3, 1644, at the battle 
of Marston Moor, the parliament forces under Cromwell 
are completely victorious. At the battle of JSTaseby, June 
14, 1645, Charles is defeated and flees to the Scotch. He 
is afterwards given up, and is executed, January 30, 1649, 
when the form of government is changed to a republic. 
In 1653, Cromwell is made protector of the common- 
wealth. 

In 1058 Oliver Cromwell dies, and is succeeded by his 
son, Richard Cromwell, who resigns the next year. In 
1660 the monarchy is restored, a parliament convened, 
and Charles II. proclaimed king. 

James II., son of Charles I. and successor of Charles 
II., escaped from England in the year before his father's 
execution. After the restoration he excited the general 
hatred of the people against himself, on account of his 
cowardice when lord high admiral, and his bigoted adher- 
ence to Romanism. The parliaments he summoned did 
his bidding in all respects, and he seemed to accomplish 
what his father lost his life in attempting. At length, 
wearied out by his continued acts of hostility, some of 
the nobility entered into negotiations with William, 
prince of Orange, James' son-in-law ; which resulted in 



TENTH PERIOD, 1688-1776. 47 

William's invasion of England, his reception by all classes 
as a deliverer, while James abdicated the throne, and took 
refuge in France. The strifes in the Convention parlia- 
ment followed, and the Kevolution in England was con- 
summated by the Bill of Eights and the Act of Settle- 
ment, which established William III. and Mary II. 
on the throne, February 13, 1G89. 

More prominence has been given to the narration of 
events during this period than will be given to those fol- 
lowing, although much that is of importance has neces- 
sarily been omitted. The fact that the nations were just 
emerging from the darkness of the middle ages, the rivalry 
for new discoveries resulting from the success of Colum- 
bus, the discovery of printing and its natural results, and 
the long list of men, prominent in politics, literature, 
and ecclesiastical affairs, render this one of the most im- 
portant periods of history. 



TENTH PEEIOD. 

From the Revolution in England, 1688, to the American 
Revolution, 177G, — 88 years. 

America. From the time of the first permanent 
settlement in America until the accession of William of 
Orange to the throne, 1699, the oppressive measures of 
the Stuart family had continued, almost without inter- 
ruption, except during the protectorate of Cromwell, 
from 1653 to 1659. The oppression of the home govern- 
ment had a tendency to increase the emigration to this 
country. 

The history of America during this period, ending 
with the American Revolution, is one of hardships and 
almost incredible sufferings incident to the founding of 
new settlements and colonies. The oppression of the 
crown, the privations endured, and the almost continual 
hostilities with savage Indians, must be familiar to every 
reader of American history. 

Previous to 1750 the English settlements were con- 
fined to the territory bordering on the Atlantic Ocean. 
As the French claimed the right by discovery to the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, no effort was made by the English to se- 
cure a foothold west of the Alleghany Mountains. Soon 



48 MODERN HISTORY. 

after the close of King George's war, English trading 
houses were established on the Ohio River. This was 
considered an intrusion by the French, and finally re- 
sulted in the French and Indian War, which continued 
from 1755 to the treaty of Paris in 1763. 

The result of this protracted contest with the French 
and Indians being successful for the American colonists, 
led them more highly to estimate their strength and ap- 
preciate their resources. After years of fruitless efforts 
to rid themselves of the indignities heaped upon them 
by the mother country, and their burdens becoming- 
intolerable, the colonists determined to resist by force of 
arms, if necessary, any further encroachments upon their 
rights ; and on the ever memorable 4th of July, 1776, the 
Declaration of Independence was solemnly adopted by 
the thirteen colonies, and by an almost unanimous vote. 

England. The history of England during this pe- 
riod is, to a large degree, in connection with the Amer- 
ican colonies. Her only conquests noted on the chart 
are in India, which commenced in 1757, during the reign 
of George II., and in America. 

The year following the accession of William III., the 
memorable act excluding Roman Catholics from the 
throne of Great Britain was passed, and the crown of 
England settled upon the present royal family by the act 
of June 12, 1701. William soon became embroiled in 
those party contests which have not ceased to harass 
England since. He found both Whigs and Tories alike 
obstructive to his policy, and alike open to corruption. 
Many important measures were inaugurated during his 
reign, and it has been customary to date English liberty 
at this time ; but it is plain, the only real liberty gained 
was for the aristocracy. 

Anne, the successor of William III., was the daugh- 
ter of James II., and married Prince George of Denmark. 
She renewed the "War of Succession" between England, 
Austria, and Holland, against France and Spain, to de- 
termine between the claims of. Philip of Anjou and the 
Archduke Charles, to the crown of Spain. During this 
war the British army gained great distinction — Gibraltar 
was taken, an acquisition whose worth was then but little 
known. After ten years the treaty of Utrecht was con- 
cluded, 1713, which secured the Protestant succession in 
England, the separation of the French and Spanish 



TENTH PERIOD, 1688-1776. 49 

crowns, the enlargement of the British colonies in Amer- 
ica, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. 

The union with Scotland was the greatest act of 
statesmanship during this reign. It was effected in 1706, 
and the first British parliament with Scottish represen- 
tatives assembled the next year. 

Soon after the accession of George I. to the throne, 
an attempt was made in behalf of a son of James II., 
called the Pretender, in Scotland. It was crushed in two 
fights, at Sheriff-Moor and Preston, in one day, and the 
leaders were executed. The " South Sea Bubble " may- 
be regarded as one of the greatest events of this reign. 

Another attempt was made during the reign of 
George II. by Charles Edward, the " Young Pre- 
tender," to put his father on the throne. But after some 
temporary successes, he was utterly defeated at Culloden, 
April 16, 1746. 

France. The war of the "Spanish Succession,'' 
which occurred during this period, has been referred to 
in connection with England. 

Louis XIV., who succeeded to the throne when he 
was but four years old, and called, also, Louis the Great, 
was by far the most notable of all the French kings 
of the Capetian dynasty. He was almost constantly en- 
gaged in war. The revocation of the Edict of ]S T antes 
was one of the most unwise and evil acts of his long and 
eventful reign. 

In 1759-60 Canada is lost to the French, and by the 
treaty of peace in 1763 ceded to England. 

Spain. The most notable events in Spain during 
this period are those already referred to in connection 
with the war of Spanish Succession. 

The crown of Spain was settled on a branch of the 
Bourbon family in 1700, and guaranteed by the peace of 
Utrecht, 1713. 

Germany was involved, like most of the European 
powers, in the wars resulting from the ambitious schemes 
of Louis XIV. of France, and her armies participated in 
the more important engagements during the war of 
" Spanish Succession." After the death of Charles VI., 
disputes arose which led to the war of " Austrian Suc- 
cession." 

Maria Theresa, who by hereditary descent was 
queen of Hungary, was opposed in her claim to the 



50 MODERN HISTORY. 

throne by the elector of Bavaria, who assumed the impe- 
rial throne under the title of Charles VII, She was 
supported by her nobles in a way worthy of her own 
daring and imperial spirit. After a series of wars she 
was secured in her possessions by the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, 1668. 

She had new wars with Frederick the Great of Prussia, 
which ended in the loss of some parts of her dominions, 
and in the gain of part of Poland, which she shared with 
Russia and Prussia. 

Prussia. In 1657 Prussia is acknowledged by Po- 
land as an independent state, under Frederick Wil- 
liam, surnamed the Great. In 1701, Frederick III., in 
an assembly of the states, puts a crown upon his own 
head and the head of his consort, and is proclaimed king 
of Prussia by the title of Frederick I. 

During the reign of Frederick II., the Great, the 
Prussian monarchy is made to rank among the first 
powers in Europe. From 1756-63 he maintained a war, 
known as the " Seven Years' War," against Austria, 
Russia, and France. He gained Silesia, formerly a prov- 
ince of Poland, but it was ceded to Bohemia in 1355. 

Hungary. Early in the 16th century Hungary, 
which had undergone many revolutions, accrued to the 
house of Austria, and was made hereditary in 1687. It 
was often engaged in war with Turkey from the 15th to 
the 18th century. The independence of Hungary was 
guaranteed in 1790. (See Austria in next period.) 

Poland, weakened by civil wars, falls a prey to the 
empress of Russia, emperor of Austria, and king of 
Prussia. In 1780, Joseph, of Hungary, son of Maria 
Theresa, becomes emperor of Austria. The central prov- 
inces were, by the treaty of Vienna in 1815, made the 
kingdom of Poland under Alexander of Russia. In 1831 
Poland became an integral part of the Russian empire. 



ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH PERIODS. 

From the Revolution in America, 1775, to the Present 

Time. 

The number of events multiplies rapidly as we ap- 
proach our own time, and only the most important can 
be noticed. 



ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH PERIODS. 51 

There are but few changes of historical boundaries, 
hence our review of the different nations for the last 
hundred years will be brief, and will be noticed in the 
order of their arrangement on the chart, commencing 
with those of Asia. 

China. Commerce, by the East India Company, 
-commenced with China in 1G80. A few years later, 
Jesuit missionaries are sent there from Eome ; but are 
expelled about 1730. In 1812 an. edict is proclaimed 
against Christianity. In 1834 the exclusive rights of 
the East India Company cease, and the opium trade is 
interdicted by the Chinese. The British trade with 
■China ceases in 1839, by an edict of the emperor. 

Soon after, difficulties arose between the governments 
of China and England, resulting in the cession of Hong- 
kong to England, and the agreement on the part of the 
latter to pay China $6,000,000 in ten days. This treaty 
was rejected by the emperor of China, and hostilities 
resumed. In 1842 another treaty was formed, which was 
afterwards ratified by both governments. Lasting peace 
and friendship was guaranteed between the two nations, 
and Hong-kong to be ceded in perpetuity to England. 
In 1858 a treaty was made with England securing free- 
dom of trade and the toleration of Christianity. This 
treaty was renewed in 1860. A commercial treaty with 
America was concluded about the same time. 

India, or Hindostan. The authentic history of Hin- 
dostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of 
Mahmud Ghazni, A. D. 1004. The country was con- 
quered by the Mogul Tartars about 1400, and again by 
the Sultan Baber, founder of the Mogul empire, 1525. 
In 1749 the last imperial army is defeated, and the 
Mogul army becomes merely nominal ; distinct and 
independent sovereignties being formed by numerous 
petty princes. 

Bombay becomes an English possession in 1662. 

Calcutta, the capital of Bengal and of British India, 
was first settled by the English in 1689. In consequence 
of the mutiny of 1857, and the disappearance of the 
East India Company's army, the government of India 
was transferred to the crown. The company's polit- 
ical power ceased, and the queen was proclaimed as 
Queen of Great Britain and the Colonies, etc., in the 



52 MODERN HISTORY. 

principal places in India, amid much enthusiasm, No- 
vember 1, 1858. 

Turkey. By the treaty of Bucharest, signed May 28, 
1812, it was stipulated that the Pruth should be the fron- 
tier of the empires of Turkey and Kussia. Since that 
time the two empires have been at war much of the time, 
and many of the provisions of the treaty have been 
altered. During the Crimean War, Bucharest was occu- 
pied successively by the Bussians, Turks, and Austrians. 
The last quitted it in 1856. The Turks were success- 
fully aided during this war by Great Britain and France, 
and by the treaty of Paris, 1856, the Ottoman empire 
recovered some of its territory, and was released from its 
subservience to Bussia. 

Greece. Ancient Greece included, among its prin- 
cipal states, Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Arcadia, 
and afterwards, Macedon. The limits of modern Greece 
are much more confined. It became subject to the 
Turkish empire at the fall of Constantinople, 1453. In 
1822 the independence of Greece was declared. The 
Porte acknowledged the independence in 1830, and two 
years later it is made a separate kingdom, and Otto of 
Bavaria elected king. 

Algiers. In consequence of the continued piracy of 
the Algerines, the city was successfully bombarded by a 
British fleet, August 27, 1816. In 1830 it surrendered to 
a French armament, after severe conflicts; the dey is de- 
posed, and the barbarian government completely over- 
thrown. Four years later, the French ministry announce 
their intention to retain Algiers permanently. 

Spain. The history of Spain is a history of revolu- 
tions and invasions. In 1806 the French army enter 
Spain ; but the next year peace is restored by the treaty 
of Fontainebleau. In 1808 Napoleon I. again attempts 
to gain control of Spain, and commences what is known 
as the " Peninsular War," which lasted until 1814, when 
Ferdinand VII. is restored. He was engaged almost 
continually in quelling insurrections or repelling foreign 
invasions. At his death in 1833, his queen assumes the 
title of governing queen until Isabella II., her infant 
daughter, attains her majority. 

Isabella II. is declared of age in 1843, when she is 
but thirteen years old. Her reign gave great dissatisfac- 
tion, and in 1868 a revolution, headed by Prim, Serrano,. 



ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH PERIODS. 53 

Spain is no m injf;^p U ZcJ he PreS6nt g ° Vernment of 

A ss -2 ss sstir a * 

23? In l" "t?, 110ti ° ed -^Tndr^e^e 
iiecius. in 180^ the Italian repub c is proclaimed witi, 

srvss ssSw "ty" /s - ~; 

kingdom of iSy the tS^ , mt , egral P art of ^e 
Since the union of Italvrtl of 7 " ch V as afc Florence, 
to Rome J the capital has been transferred 

pendence, which & re™Sed bv^Ti-lT 8 her inde - 
Leopold, prince of CofuKtS tof P™* 8 ' ^ 

annexed toW ti °' M< J a few of its a»tons 



54 MODERN HISTORY. 

France. During the reign of Louis XVI., near the 
close of the last century, occurred that bloody revolution, 
which cost the king and many of his subjects their 
lives. 

Maximilian Eobespierre headed the populace who de- 
manded the dethronement of the king. He was at first 
successful, but was afterward denounced as a tyrant, and 
on the 28th of July, 1794, he was guillotined, with St. 
Just and seventy of their colleagues. This terminates 
the " Eeign of Terror." 

In 1804 France is formed into an empire, and Napo- 
leon proclaimed emperor of the French. The next year 
he is crowned king of Italy. During the next ten years 
Napoleon was almost continually engaged in foreign 
wars. In 1814 he abdicates, and the Bourbons are re- 
stored in the person of Louis XVIII. 

Charles X., the last of the Bourbons, by his policy, 
provoked the revolution of 1830, when, in three days, the 
ascendency of the Bourbons, so laboriously restored by 
the allied powers of Europe, and twenty } 7 ears of war, 
was completely overthrown. 

Louis Philippe I., the duke of Orleans, ascended 
the throne August 7, 1830. His reign, being without 
any fixed principles, and his insatiable avarice, led to 
great discontent in France. In 1848 a popular insurrec- 
tion commenced in Paris. The royal family escaped to 
England, a provisional government was established, and 
France was declared a republic. In December of the 
same year Louis Napoleon is elected president of the 
French republic. December 2, 1852, the President of 
the French is declared emperor of France by the title of 

Napoleon III. The reign of Xapoleon was gener- 
ally successful. In 1870 he engaged in a war with Prussia 
which resulted disastrously to himself, and temporarily so 
to France. The monarchy was overthrown, the emperor 
sent into exile, and a republic proclaimed, of which 
Marshal McMahon is president. 

England. The history of England for the last cen- 
tury is highly important. Much of this history is re- 
viewed in connection with other countries. 

George III., who was the reigning sovereign during 
the American revolution, died in 1820, after a reign of 
GO years, the longest in English history. He is succeeded 
by his son, 



ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH PERIODS. 55 

George IV., who engaged less in war than most of 
his predecessors, and many reforms were accomplished. 
His unsuccessful effort to procure a bill of divorce from 
the queen was perhaps the most important event con- 
cerning himself, that occurred during his reign. He was 
succeeded, in 1830, by his brother, 

William IV., the immediate predecessor of 

Victoria. Queen Victoria was the daughter of the 
duke of Kent, and niece of William IV. She has occu- 
pied the throne of England since 1837, and her reign has 
been deservedly popular. 

The acquisitions and losses to the British dominions 
during the last century are noted on the chart, and are 
referred to under their respective heads. 

Prussia. The Prussian territories were greatly en- 
larged, by the partition of Poland in 1772, and subse- 
quently by the Congress of Vienna in 1814. In 1848 an 
insurrection breaks out at Berlin, which is declared in a 
state of siege. The next year the German National As- 
sembly elect the king of Prussia " hereditary emperor of 
Germany;' 5 but the king declines the imperial crown* 
In 1861,* 

"William I, succeeds Frederick William IV., and in 
January 1871 assumes the imperial crown of Germany. 
(See France, Germany, and Austria.) 

Germany. During the reign of Francis II. oc- 
curred those ruinous wars between Germany and France 
by which Germany loses the Netherlands, all her territo- 
ries west of the Rhine, and her states in Italy. In 1806, 
Francis II. abolishes the title of emperor of Germany,, 
and assumes that of Francis I., emperor of Austria. 
The "Confederation of the Rhine" was formed by the 
union of most of the German states, and Austria became 
a hereditary empire. This league terminated with the 
career of Bonaparte in 1814, and was replaced by the 
Germanic Confederation. This confederation, constituted 
by the allies in 1815, consisted of the empire of Austria, 
the kingdoms of Prussia, Hanover, Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wurtemberg ; 7 grand-duchies, 8 duchies, and 12 princi- 
palities. 

After the war of 1866, Germany was reconstructed, 
and Prussia secured a leading control in Germany. The 
states north of the Main constituted what was known as 
the North German Confederation, about three-fourths of 



56 MODERN HISTORY. 

which belonged to Prussia. The states south of the Main 
were permitted by the treaty between Austria and Prussia 
to unite in a South German Confederation, or unite with 
the states north of the Main, according to their own 
option. 

At the close of the Franco-Prussian war, 1871, the 
German states, North and South, are united, and King 
William of Prussia is proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 

Austria became a separate empire in 1806. Much 
of her history, since that time as well as before, is closely 
allied to that of Germany and Prussia. Francis I. 
(Francis II. of Germany), the first emperor of Austria, 
reigned from 1806-35. During his reign Austria suf- 
fered much from the wars with Napoleon. 

In 1848, when nearly all the European governments 
were agitated by revolutions or rebellions, the Hunga- 
rians, discontented with their Austrian rulers, break out 
into a formidable rebellion, in which Kossuth became 
so distinguished. The next year the Hungarians de- 
clare their independence, with Kossuth, supreme gov- 
ernor. They were finally defeated, and Francis Jo- 
seph was declared king of Hungary and emperor of 
Austria. 

Sweden and Denmark. By the treaty between 
Great Britain, Sweden, and Norway, signed at Kiel in 
1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden. In 1544, Holstein 
and Schleswig were ceded to Denmark. An unsuccessful 
effort was afterwards made by these duchies to effect a 
separation from Denmark. By the convention of Gastein 
in 1865, the government of Holstein was left with Austria, 
and that of Schleswig with Prussia. 

Russia. In 1801, Alexander I. ascends the throne 
of Eussia. He makes peace with England, but joins the 
coalition against Napoleon in 1805. By the treaty of 
Tilsit, Napoleon restores to the Prussian monarch one- 
half his territories, and Russia recognizes the " Confed- 
eration of the Rhine " and the elevation of Napoleon's 
three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones 
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. 

Nicholas I., Alexander's brother, succeeds to the 
throne in 1826. The wars with Poland and Hungary, 
which occurred during his reign, have already been re- 
ferred to. 



ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH PERIODS. 57 

Kussia and France, having each taken a side in the 
dispute between the Greek and Latin churches, the 
question was referred to a mixed commission which de- 
cided m favor of the Greeks' holding possession of the 
Holy Places m Palestine, in 1853. To this the French 
acceded but the Russians made further claims, which 
final I ly ; led to the Russo-Turkish, or Crimean War! 

While this war was in progress, 1855, Nicholas died, 
and was succeeded by Alexander II. The war ter- 

■TWW J tl \ e W ° f £ aris ' 1856 > between R ^ssia and 
luikey, Great Britain, Prance, and Sardinia. Turkey 

was admitted into the European system, and the con- 
tracting parties guaranteed its independence. The free- 
dom of the Danube is secured, and the rectification of 
the Russian frontier promised. In 1861 a decree is 
issued tor the emancipation of the serfs (23,000,000) 
^throughout the empire, in two years. ' 

Th^r^f m me ? ca ' a In } 759 Canada is conquered 
by the British and confirmed to them by the peace of 

cwio -nil ? 1S , dmd r e r d mt0 U ^ er and Low ^r 
Canada. Delegates from Upper and Lower Canada, 

*ew Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and 
Prince Edward's Island, met at Quebec in 1864, and 
agreed to the basis of a federal union. The plan was 
opposed by New Brunswick; but the confederation was 
inaugurated m 1867, under the style of the « Dominion 
of Canada, with Ottawa as the capital. Canada West 
is known as the Province of Ontario, and Canada East 
as the Province of Quebec. 

Mexico was conquered by the Spaniards under 
Fernando Cortez m 1521, and the territory named New 
fepam. The country rebelled in 1816, and gained its 
independence m 1821. In 1836 Texas separated from 
Mexico, and its independence is acknowledged in 1840 
Its proposed annexation to the United States led to a 
war between Mexico and the United States in 1845 
which continued until 1848, and resulted in the loss to 
Mexico of California and New Mexico. 

In 1862 a project was instituted for establishing a 
Mexican monarchy for the Archduke Maximilian of 
Austria This led to a war with France. Maximilian 
accepts the proffered honor, but in 1867 his troops are 
defeated, himself taken prisoner, and on the 19th of June 
■ot the same year, is executed. 



58 MODERN HISTORY. 

United States. The history of the United States, 
which has not yet completed its first century, is one 
of unexampled prosperity and almost incredible achieve- 
ments. Her years number less than those of some of 
her citizens, but to attempt a review of her growth and 
development in this short period, within the limits de- 
signed for this work, would be to attempt what could 
not be accomplished. 

The following thirteen states formed the Union at 
the time of the declaration of independence, in 1776 : — 
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Ehode Island, Connec- 
ticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
and Georgia. The first census of the population was 
taken seven years after the close of the Eevolutionary 
War, when it appeared that the entire population in the 
Union was about 300,000 less than the white population 
in the State of New York in, 1870, but 80 years later; 
it being a little less than 4,000,000. 

The story of the sufferings and sacrifices endured by 
the colonists to secure their independence, has been so 
often told, that it must be familiar to all our readers. 
In 1777 a Federal Government was formed, and in Feb- 
ruary following, the States were recognized by France. 
In 1787 a new constitution is formed which is ratified 
the next year by all the States except Ehode Island. 
The first Congress met, under the new constitution, on 
the 3d of March, 1789, and on the 14th of April George 
Washington was declared the first president. The cap- 
ital of the United States was removed from Philadelphia 
to Washington in 1800. 

While it is not the design of this work to show the 
extent or geographical boundaries of countries, it may 
be well, for a better comprehension of the growth of the 
United States, to give the extent of our national terri- 
tory at the close of the Eevolutionary War. By the treaty 
of peace with Great Britain, concluded September 3, 
1783, our national territory w r as defined as extending 
westward from the Atlantic to the Mississippi river, and 
from a line on the north of the lakes to the 31st parallel 
and the south boundary of Georgia, embracing 830,000 
square miles. This area included the thirteen original 
States, acquired by virtue of grants from the British 
Crown prior to the Eevolution ; also an area of 405,352 



ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH PERIODS. 59 

square miles held by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New 
York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
Georgia, under grants from Great Britain during their 
Colonial period. When it is considered that less than 
90 years have elapsed since the public domain contained 
an area less than one-fourth of its present extent, and 
a population less than that of the State of New York 
in 1870, some approximation may be made toward an 
intelligent comparison between the rapid and healthful 
growth of a nation where republican institutions are 
fostered, and the growth of European countries where 
even the most popular forms of monarchical government 
prevail. 

Since the war for independence, the United States 
has been engaged in but three wars, — with Great Britain, 
from 1812 to 1814; with Mexico, from 1846 to 1848; 
and the Civil War, from 1861 to 1865. 

The alleged reason for the war with Great Britain 
was her continued aggressions upon American com- 
merce, by an assumed right to search her ships and 
impress into the English service all sailors found on 
board who were of English birth. 

The cause and the result of the war with Mexico have 
already been noticed in connection with that govern- 
ment. It is a noticeable fact that in the twelve battles 
fought during the Mexican war, commencing with Palo 
Alto, May 8, 1846, and ending with the capture of the 
city of Mexico, September 14, 1847, the Americans were 
every time victorious. 

By reference to the chart it will be seen that the 
space representing the duration of the government 
of the United States, occupies less than one century, 
while that representing France, England, and Russia 
extends back through more than fourteen centuries. 
The comparative age of existing governments, as well 
as of those extinct, will be more readily comprehended 
by referring to them on the large chart than in any 
other way. 

Persons desiring to find the history of the United 
States, in a condensed form, and chronologically ar- 
ranged, so that the more important events which oc- 
curred during any year, or any specified number of 
years — as the term of the administration of any presi- 
dent — are referred to the American Historical Chart, or 



GO MODERN HISTORY. 

to Synchronology of Ancient and Modern History, from 
which this chart is principally compiled. 

The territory comprising the States of Florida and 
California, also Texas and New Mexico, together with 
the republic of Mexico and most of the South American 
governments, as will be seen by referring to the chart, 
was, from the time of its settlement early in the 16th 
century, until separate and independent governments 
were formed, during the present century, subject to 
Spanish rule. 

The Argentine Confederation comprised 13 prov- 
inces. This country formed a part of the viceroyalty of 
Peru until 1778, when it became that of Eio de la Plata. 
Buenos Ayres was recognized as forming a part of the 
Argentine Confederation in 1822. It seceded from the 
Confederation in 1853, and was recognized as an inde- 
pendent state. It was reunited with the Confederacy 
in 1859. 

Brazil was subject to the Portuguese until 1823. 



AMERICAN HBSTOR8CAL CHART 

From the discovery of America by Columbus y 

1492, to January 1, 1871. 

This Chart is carefully arranged in Chronological order giving all the 
principal events in the History of the United States. A table showing 
when, wheroand by whom each state was settled, when it was admitted 
:ntothe Union, its capital and population in 1S70. A table giving the 
names of the Presidents and Vice Presidents of tho United States, when 
each was elected, and their term of office. Also a table showing when, 
where and by what vessels each of tho naval battles was fought during the 
last war between the United States and England and showing which were 
victorious, and tables of all the principal battles of the different wars in 
which this country has been engaged 6inco its discovery, including 

The Great Rebellion, 

And showing which army was victorious in each battle. Also a biographi- 
cal table giving the names of tho principal Statesmen, Professional and 
Literary men, Artists, Military and Naval Officers, &c, with the date of 
their birth, and the death of those who are deceased. 

Tho whole printed on heavy paper 2G by 34 inches and mounted with cor- 
nice and roller. 

Making it one of the most convenient 

Histories of the United States for 

reference, there is published. 

This Chart has of late been called for quite extensively for 

SCHOOLS and DWEUULEVG'S 

And every school room in the United States as well as every office and pri- 
vate residence 

Should be supplied with a copy. 

Extra Inducements to School Officers, and Teachers who wish tc 
Introduce them into schools. 

STATE ACEWTS WAITED. 

ADDRESS, 

F. B. RESD& CO., 

121 Nassau Street, N. I. 



NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL: 



F.MBBACINO AM 



Historical Tabular View of the Gospels; 



TABLES OF THE 



Parables, Discourses, and Miracles of Christ ; Pre- 
dictions in the Old Testament, with their 
fulfillment in the New ; Classification 
of the books of the New Testa- 
ment, with Observations 
on each. 

Biographical Sketches of the Jtpostles and 

Evangelists. 

'descriptions of all Places mentioned in the New Testament. 

an important chronological table; 

with :m:.a.:pj3 ? 

Showing the Journeys of Jesus and St. Paul, $c, #c. 
Compiled from the Works of the most Eminent Biblical Writers, 

BY 

STEPHEN HA WES, 
Author of *• Synchronology of Sacred and Profane History." 

This book is not designed as a commentary on the New Testament, bnt 
us an introduction to a careful study and proper understanding of the New 
Testament Scriptures. 

It has received the most flattering commendations from both the reli- 
gious and secular press. It is not sectarian in character but designed for 
the benefit of all classes who wish to study the Bible understanding^. 

PRICE (in Cloth) 75 Cents. 

Sent by mail prepaid to any address on receipt of price. Clergymen, 
Sabbath School Superintendents and Teachers, Officers of Young Men's 
■Christian Associations and all others who will interest themselves { n the 
«ale of this book, will be furnished at reduced prices. 

ADDBESS, 

P. B. REED & CO., 

121 Nassau St., New York. 



W 80 




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